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Nuclearizing NATO, 1957–1959: the ‘Anglo-Saxons’, nuclear sharing and the fourth country problem

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 October 2009

Jan Melissen
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Extract

The spread of nuclear weapons outside the Western world has become the most important nuclear issue since the end of the Cold War. By contrast, the debate about Europe's nuclear strategy has subsided. Nuclear collaboration in Western Europe now seems an unlikely prospect and so too does proliferation, despite instability in the former Soviet Union, and occasional speculation about Germany's nuclear appetite. A very different atmosphere prevailed during the Cold War, when the need for a European nuclear force was endlessly debated, without any prospect of this political demand being fulfilled, and, in the late 1950s and 1960s, several European countries appeared to be at the threshold of obtaining nuclear power.

Type
Research Article
Information
Review of International Studies , Volume 20 , Issue 3 , July 1994 , pp. 253 - 275
Copyright
Copyright © British International Studies Association 1994

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References

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29 Memo, of Discussion at State Dept., 6 Nov. 1957, DDEL, Dulles Papers, General Corr. and Memo. Series, box 3, Strictly Condifential N-P (I); Memo, by McElroy to Dulles, 12 Nov. 1957, NARA, RG 59, 740.5/11–1257, box 3147.

30 Melissen, The Thor Saga’, pp. 185–9; Memo, of a Confer, with DDE by Goodpaster, 22 Nov. 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 XIX, pp. 687–8.

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34 Memo, of Conv., 22 Nov. 1957 (note 32); Memo, of Discussion at 346th Mtg. of NSC, 22 Nov. 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 XIX, pp. 689–95.

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36 Memo, by McElroy to Dulles, 12 Nov. 1957 (note 29); Memo, of Conv. at British Embassy in Paris, 14 Dec. 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 IV, pp. 224–30; Wolf to Lane, 17 Jan. 1959, DDEL, Norstad Papers. Policy File Series, box 89, IRBM—General (2).

37 Tele, by Houghton to Herter, 3 Jan. 1959, DDC 1989, frame 1923; Tele, by Dulles to Houghton, 9 Jan. 1959, DDC 1989, frame 1925; Tele, by Houghton to Herter, 17 Jan. 1959, DDEL, Norstad Papers, Policy File Series, box 89, IRBM—General (2).

38 Memo, by McElroy to Dulles, 12 Nov. 1957 (note 29); Memo, of Conv., 22 Nov. (note 31); Memo, by Twining for Dulles, 14 Nov. 1957 (note 31); Memo, by Twining for McElroy, 14 Nov. 1957 (note 31); Tele, by US Embassy in Paris to Dept. of State, ‘Background briefing of US correspondents on Dec. 15’, n.d., DDEL, WHO, Office of Staff Secretariat, Int'l trips and Mtgs. Series, box 4, NATO Mtg., Paris, Chronol., Dec. 15 1957.

39 Memo, of Conv., 14 Dec. 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 IV, pp. 230–1; Tele, from US Delegation at NATO Mtg. to Dept. of State, 19 Dec. 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 IV, pp. 253–6.

40 Memo, of Conv. with Norstad by Dulles, 18 Jan. 1958, DDEL, Dulles Papers, General Corr. and Memo. Series, box 1, Memoranda of Conversations—General—N thru R (1); Memo, for the Record by Guthrie, 26 March 1958, NARA, RG 218, Geographic File, 1958, box 171, CCS 092 Western Europe (3–12–48) Sec. 102; Memo, of Discussion, 25 March 1958, DDEL, Norstad Papers, Box 58, IRBM General (3).

41 Memo, for the Records by Stilwell, 16 Jan. 1959, DDC 1987, frame 144; ‘Development of Long-Range Guided Missiles’ by Herbert York, 3 June 1960, DDEL, WHO, NSC Staff, Executive Secretariat, Subject File Series, box 1, misc. (File 2) (7); Vaïsse, ‘Un dialogue de sourds’, pp. 412–13.

42 Tele, by Dulles to Houghton and Burgess, 7 June 1958, DDEL, Norstad Papers, box 589, IRBM General (3); Memo, for Irwin by Whisenand, 17 Nov. 1958, NARA, RG 218, Geographic File, 1958, box 176, CCS 092 Western Europe (3–12–48) (2) Sec. 122.

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44 Tele, from US Delegation at NATO Mtg. to Dept. of State, 17 Dec. 1957 (note 20); Tele, from US Delegation at NATO Mtg. to Dept. of State, 19 Dec. 1957 (note 39); Bloem, D.J., Korthius, H., Barkman, C. D.et al., Nederland en de Kemwapens. Een studie over het Nederlands nucleair beleid, 1972–1985 (Alphen aan de Rijn/Brussel, 1987), pp. 53–4Google Scholar.

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47 Tele, from the US Delegation at NATO Meeting to Dept. of State, 17 Dec. 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 IV, pp. 244–8; Tele, from US Delegation at NATO Mtg. to Dept. of State, 18 Dec. 1957, FRUS1955–1957 IV, pp. 249–51.

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50 Melissen, ‘The Thor Saga’, pp. 194–5.

51 Memo, of Conv. with Norstad by Dulles, 18 Jan. 1958 (note 40); Memo, for the Record by Guthrie, 26 March 1958 (note 40);

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56 Tele, by Houghton to Herter, 7 Jan. 1959, DDC 1989, frame 1924; Memo, by Herter for DDE, 16 September 1959, DDC 1990, frame 2213; Tele, from State Dept. to American Embassy in Ankara, 17 Sept. 1959, DDC 1987, frame 305.

57 Memo, of Confer, with DDE by Goodpaster, National Security Archive (NSA), Nuclear Non-Proliferation Collection (NNC), document 52031.

58 ‘Back from the Brink: The Correspondence Between President John F. Kennedy and Chairman Nikita S. Khrushchev on the Cuban Missile Crisis of Autumn 1962’, Problems of Communism, 41 (1992)Google Scholar. See also: Beschloss, Michael, The Crisis Years: Kennedy and Khrushchev 1960–1963 (New York, 1991), pp. 546–7Google Scholar. Two other recent analyses on the subject are: Nur Bilge Criss, ‘Les retombées de la crise de Cuba: les Jupiters “turcs”‘, Vaïsse (ed.), L'Europe el la crise de Cuba, pp. 159–68; Nash, Philip, ‘Nuisance of Decision: Jupiter Missiles and the Cuban Missile Crisis’, The Journal of Strategic Studies, 14 (1991), pp. 1–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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60 Memo, of Confer, with DDE by Goodpaster, 17 June 1959, Ibid.; Memo, of confer, with DDE by Goodpaster, 19 June 1959, NSA, NNC, document 52030.

61 Tele, by JCS to Norstad, 6 Nov. 1958, NARA, RG 218, Geographic File, 1958, box 176, CCS 092 Western Europe (3–12–48) (2) Sec. 121; Memo, by Whisenand to Irwin, 17 Nov. 1958 (note 42); Bureau of European Affairs to Murphy, n.d. 1959, DDEL, Norstad Papers, Policy File Series, box 89, IRBM General (1); Tele, by Dulles to Burgess, 9 Jan. 1959, DDC 1989, frame 1411; Memo, for the Records by Stilwell, 16 Jan. 1959 (note 41); Wolf to Lane, 17 Jan. 1959 (note 36).

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67 Barbier, ‘Les négotiations’, pp. 100–2; Fischer, ‘Zwischen Abschreckung und Verteidigung’, pp. 151–2.

68 Tele, from US Delegation at NATO Mtg. to Dept. of State, 17 Dec. 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 IV, p. 237.

69 Barbier, ‘Les negotiations’, pp. 107, 108; Schwarz, Adenauer, pp. 396–7, 400.

70 At the end of 1956, under Eden, British cabinet ministers toyed briefly with the thought of WEU cooperation on the establishment of a European nuclear force: Minutes of a Cabinet Ad Hoc Committee, PRO, CAB 130/122, GEN 564, 1st meeting; Cabinet Minutes, 3 Jan. 1957, PRO, CAB 131/17, D.C 1 (57)5.

71 Schwarz, Adenauer, pp. 394–401, and ‘Adeneur und die Kernwaffen’, Viertel-jahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 37 (1989) p. 576Google Scholar Strauss, Die Erinnerungen, p. 313. See for the argument that German policy always left the military nuclear option, Küntzel, Matthias, Bonn und die Bombe: Deutsche Atomwaffenpolitik von Adenauer bis Brandt (Frankfurt/Main, 1992)Google Scholar. For 1957–59, pp. 17–38.

72 Memo, for the Record by Guthrie, 26 March 1958 (note 40).

73 Memo, of a Conv. a t Dept. of State, 21 Nov. 1957 (note 35), p. 202; Fischer, ‘Das Projekt einer trilateralen Nuklearkooperation’, p. 153.

74 Schwarz, Adenauer, pp. 399–00.

75 Adenauer, Erinnerungen, pp. 339–42.

76 Nuti, ‘Italy and the Nuclear Choices’, pp. 230–1; Nuti, ‘Le rôle de l'ltalie’, pp. 145–50.

77 Memo, of Conv., 17 Dec. 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 IV, pp. 242–4.

78 Walker, John Ronald, ‘British Attitudes to Nuclear Proliferation, 1952–1958’, PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1986, pp. 46Google Scholar, 47–8, 206.

79 Melissen, ‘The Restoration of the Nuclear Alliance’.

80 Hooker to Dept. of State, 26 Febr. 1958, NARA, RG 59, 741.00/2–2658, box 3185.

81 Tele, by Jebb to Foreign Office, 25 June 1958, PRO, PRE M 11/2326; Record of Conv. between Macmillan and de Gaulle, 29 June 1958, PRO, PREM 11/2326.

82 Memo, of Discussion at 319th Mtg. of NSC, 11 April 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 XIX, p. 474.

83 Tele, by Stassen to Dulles, 20 June 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 XX, Regulation of Armaments; Atomic Energy (Washington, DC, 1990) pp. 632–5Google Scholar.

84 Stassen to Wilson, 18 May 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 XX, pp. 526–8; Memo, of Discussion at 340th Mtg. of NSC, 17 Oct. 1957 (note 17).

85 Memo, of Discussion at 317th Mtg. of NSC, 28 March 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 XIX, pp. 446–447; Memo, of Confer, with DDE by Goodpaster, 23 April 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 XX, p. 487.

86 Memo, of Conv., 9 June 1958, DDEL, AWF, Int'l Series, box 21, Macmillan-President 6/1/58 to 9/30/58 (7); Memo, from JCS to Wilson, 22 May 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 XX, pp. 542–3. Army Chief of Staff General Maxwell Taylor later dissociated himself from the standpoint of the other Chiefs, memo, by the Chief of Staff, US Army, 29 Oct. 1957, NSA, NNC, document no. 10173.

87 Vaisse, ‘Un dialogue de sourds’, pp. 410–11; Interview with General Lauris Norstad by Thomas Soapes, 11 Nov. 1976, DDEL, OH 385 pp. 34, 35.

88 Memo, of Conv. by Spiers, 20 April 1957, FRUS 1955–1957 XX, p. 481.

89 Newhouse, John, The Nuclear Age: From Hiroshima to Star Wars (London, 1989), pp. 132–3Google Scholar.

90 Memo, of Discussion at 340th Mtg. of NSC, 17 Oct. 1957 (note 17); Memo, of Conv., 14 Dec. 1957, DDEL, WHO, Office of Staff Secretariat, Int'l Trips and Mtgs. Series, Box 4, NATO Mtg., Dec 14, 1957 (1).

91 The most detailed account of Congressional involvement in US nuclear policy is Botti, Timothy, The Long Wait: The Forging of the Anglo-American Nuclear Alliance. 1945–58 (New York, 1987)Google Scholar.

92 Amending the Atomic Energy Act of 1954—Exchange of Military Information and Material with Allies, Hearings before Subcommittee on Agreements for Cooperation of JCAE, 85th Congress, 2nd session (Washington, DC, 1958)Google Scholar.

93 Amending the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, 29 Jan., 30 Jan., 31 Jan., and 27 Febr. 1958 (quotation Vance, p. 183).

94 Phone Call by Dulles to Strauss, 31 March 1958, Minutes of Telephone Conversations by JED, reel 7, slides 236, 237.

95 Ibid. p. 344; News Confer, by Dulles, 1 April 1958, Department of State Bulletin, 38 (1958), pp. 639–44Google Scholar.

96 For Dulles’ statement: Amending the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (note 92), 17 April 1958, pp. 446–75 (quotation, pp.461); Memo, by Elbrick, 20 June 1958, NARA, RG 59, 611.1196/6–2056, box 2480.

97 On the Dulles-De Gaulle talks: Ledwidge, Bernard (ed.), De Gaulle et les Américains: Conversations avec Dulles, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Rusk, 1958–1964 (Paris, 1984), pp. 9–40Google Scholar; Report on Secretary Dulles’ Conv. with de Gaulle, 5 July 1958, PRO, PREM 11/2573; Dulles to Lloyd, 8 July 1958, PRO, PREM 11/2573.

98 Amending the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (note 92), 17 April 1958, p. 471.

99 Memo, of a Confer., 17 June 1958, NSA, NNC, doc. no. 51715.