Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T11:24:31.564Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The new climate leaders?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 February 2013

Abstract

Little interest has thus far been paid to the role of cities in world politics. Yet, several are the examples of city-based engagements suggesting an emerging urban presence in international relations. The Climate Leadership Group, despite its recent lineage, is perhaps the most significant case of metropolitan intersection with global governance. To illustrate this I rely on Actor-Network Theory (ANT) to develop a qualitative network analysis of the evolution of the C40 in the past seven years from a limited gathering of municipal leaders to a transnational organisation partnering with the World Bank. Pinpointed on the unfolding of a twin diplomacy/planning approach, the evolution of the C40 can demonstrate the key role of global cities as actors in global environmental politics. These cities have a pivotal part in charting new geographies of climate governance, prompting the rise of subpolitical policymaking arrangements pinpointed on innovative and hybrid connections. Yet, there remains some important rational continuity, in particular with neoliberalism, which ultimately limits the revolutionary potential these cities might have for international relations.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © British International Studies Association 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Alexei Barrionueovo, ‘World Bank to Help Cities Control Climate Change’, New York Times (2 June 2011), available at: {http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/02/science/earth/02climate.html?_r=3} accessed 24 January 2012.

2 See ‘The 2008 Global Cities Index’, Foreign Policy (November/December 2008), pp. 68–77.

3 Hobbs, Heidi H., City Hall Goes Abroad: The Foreign Policy of Local Politics (Ann Harbor: University of Michigan, 1994)Google Scholar; Fry, Earl H., ‘State and Local Governments in the International Arena’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 509 (1990), pp. 118–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; also see Duchacek, Ivo D., Latouche, Daniel, and Stevenson, Garth, Perforated Sovereignties and International Relations (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988)Google Scholar.

4 Alger, Chadwick F., ‘The World Relations of Cities: Closing the Gap Between Social Science Paradigms and Everyday Human Experience’, International Studies Quarterly, 34:4 (1990), pp. 494 and 513CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 A relevant exception, albeit still limited in its consideration of cities, is Hocking, Brian, Localizing Foreign Policy: Non-Central Governments and Multilayered Diplomacy (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The interaction of cities and global governance has also been explored in Betsill, Michele and Bulkeley, Harriet, ‘Cities and the Multilevel Governance of Global Climate Change’, Global Governance, 12:2 (2006), pp. 141–59Google Scholar.

6 Curtis, Simon, ‘Global Cities and the Transformation of the International System’, Review of International Studies, 37:4 (2011), pp. 1923–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 This is for example the case of Calder, Kent and de Feytas, Mariko, ‘Global Political Cities as Actors in Twenty-First Century International Affairs’, SAIS Review, 29:1 (2009), pp. 7997CrossRefGoogle Scholar. I have offered a more extensive rejoinder on this issue of agency in Acuto, Michele, ‘Global cities: gorillas in our midst’, Alternatives, 35:4 (2010), pp. 425–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 As suggested in Jan Melissen and Rogier van der Pluijm, ‘City diplomacy: the Expanding Role of Cities in International Politics’ (The Hague: Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’, April 2007).

9 Curtis, ‘Global cities and the Transformation of the International System’, p. 1939. I have illustrated the analytical advantages of ANT for integrating cities in global governance more at length in Acuto, Michele, ‘Putting ANTs in the mille-feuille’, CITY, 15:4 (2011), pp. 552–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Useful introductions to ANT can be found in Law, John, ‘Notes on the Theory of the Actor-Network: Ordering, Strategy and Heterogeneity’, Systems Practice, 5:4 (1992), pp. 379–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Latour, Bruno, Reassembling the Social: an Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005)Google Scholar.

11 On the anthropocentric limits of the international agency discourse see Schiff, Jacob, ‘Real? As if! Critical reflections on state personhood’, Review of International Studies, 34:2 (2008), pp. 363–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Law, John, ‘Notes on the Theory of the Actor-Network: Ordering, Strategy and Heterogeneity’, Systems Practice, 5:4 (1992), p. 387CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 The idea of supervience and the question of agency in the international arena has been object of a recent lively debate in Review of International Affairs. As Alex Wendt pointed out on states, ‘supervenience’ is to be intended here a somewhat ‘weak’ theoretical variant to emergentism. It is the emergence of a set of properties (or group actor) ‘over’ another, in the sense that there cannot be a transformation in the former without also producing a difference in the latter, a view that allows us to connect ‘macro’ to ‘micro’ phenomena and thus networking within the C40 with networking of the C40. Wendt, Alexander, ‘The state as a person in international theory’, Review of International Studies, 30:1 (2004), p. 300CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Callon, Michel and Law, John, ‘Agency and the Hybrid Collectif’, South Atlantic Quarterly, 94 (1995), pp. 481507Google Scholar.

15 Law, John, Rip, Arie, and Callon, Michael (eds), Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology: Sociology of Science in the Real World (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1986), p. 4Google Scholar.

16 Callon, Michel, ‘Struggles and Negotiations to Define What Is Problematic and What Is Not: The Sociology of Translation’, in Krohn, Roger G., Knorr-Cetina, Karin D., and Whitley, Richard (eds), The Social Process of Scientific Investigation: Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook (Boston: Reidel, 1980), p. 211Google Scholar.

17 This model originated in Callon, Michel, ‘Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scollops and the Fisherman of St Brieuc Bay’, in Law, John (ed.), Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986), pp. 196223Google Scholar. It has now developed widely across most of ANT theorists, as in Davies, Anna, ‘Power, Politics and Networks: Shaping Partnerships for Sustainable Communities’, Area, 34:2 (2002), pp. 190203CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Latour, Bruno, ‘Where Are the Missing Masses? The Sociology of a Few Mundane Artifacts’, in Bijker, Wiebe and Law, John (eds), Shaping Technology/Building Society (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992), p. 249Google Scholar.

19 Callon, ‘Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation’, p. 198.

20 Taking part in this summit were London, Barcelona, Beijing, Berlin, Brussels, Chicago, Curitiba, New Delhi, Madrid, Melbourne, Mexico City, New York, Paris, Philadelphia, Rome, San Francisco, São Paulo, Shanghai, Stockholm, Toronto, and Zurich.

21 As noted in Gavron's speech at the outset of the summit. GLA Mayor Press Release (4 October 2005): ‘Mayor brings together major cities to take lead on climate change’, available at: {http://www.london.gov.uk/media} accessed 14 December 2010.

22 Communiqué of the Large World Cities (C20), London – action #6 (5 October 2005), p. 2.

23 The term is from Cox, Kevin R., ‘Spaces of Dependence, Spaces of Engagement and the Politics of Scale, Or: Looking for Local Politics’, Political Geography, 17:1 (1998), pp. 123CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Interview with C40 member city local government (transport and planning) officer, Singapore (14 January 2011).

25 ARUP-C40 joint report ‘Climate Action in Megacities: C40 Cities Baseline and Opportunities’, available at: {http://www.arup.com/Publications/Climate_Action_in_Megacities.aspx} accessed 17 July 2011.

26 The expressions have often been reiterated, not least by the successive C40 Chairs David Miller of Toronto and Michael Bloomberg of New York, at the outset of each biannual Summit.

27 Clark, Ian, ‘Legitimacy in a Global Order’, Review of International Studies, 29:1 (2003), pp. 7595CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 C40 Large Cities Climate Summit statement, ‘Seoul Declaration’ (18–21 May 2009), available at {http://www.c40cities.org/news/news-20090522.jsp} accessed 27 April 2011.

29 Mayor Bloomberg keynote address to the C40 Large Cities Climate Summit 2007 (15 May 2007). Transcript available at: {http://www.c40cities.org/summit/2007/speeches} accessed 24 April 2011.

30 ‘By some estimates, urban areas account for 78 per cent of carbon emissions from human activities.’ See Stern, Nicholas, The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 517CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. Much of the same could also be said of the ‘canonical’ the definition of ‘sustainability’ set by the Brundtland Report Our Common Future in 1987.

31 The figure now regularly appears in speeches, powerpoints, reports, and pamphlets at both C40 summits and workshops.

32 Satterthwaite, David, ‘Cities' Contribution to Global Warming: Notes on the Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions’, Environment and Urbanization, 20:2 (2008), pp. 539–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 Mayor Michael Bloomberg's opening speech, C40 São Paulo Summit (1 June 2011), available at: {http://c40saopaulosummit.com/site/conteudo/index.php?in_secao=27&lang=3&in_conteudo=112} accessed 17 July 2011.

34 Ibid.

35 For the text of the agreement see: Clinton Foundation Press Release (1 August 2006): ‘President Clinton Launches Clinton Climate Initiative’, available at: {http://www.clintonfoundation.org/news/news-media} accessed 14 August 2011.

36 Michael Barbaro, ‘Bloomberg and Clinton to Merge Climate Groups’, The New York Times (13 April 2011).

37 The Strategy, yet to be officially released, was sketched at the Hong Kong Summit (5–6 November 2010) and illustrated publicly by Bloomberg in the address to the fourth biannual summit in São Paulo (31 May–2 June 2011).

38 Mayor Michael Bloomberg's opening speech, C40 São Paulo Summit (1 June 2011), emphasis added.

39 Heine, Jorge, ‘On the Manner of Practicising the New Diplomacy’, in Cooper, Andrew F., Hocking, Brian, and Maley, William (eds), Global Governance and Diplomacy: Worlds Apart? (London: Palgrave, 2008), p. 273Google Scholar.

40 Recent cases of academic attention to the case can be traced, amongst others, in Pattberg, Philipp, ‘The Role and Relevance of Networked Climate Governance’, in Biermann, Frank, Pattberg, Philipp, and Zelli, Fariborz (eds), Global Climate Governance Beyond 2012: Architecture, Agency and Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 146–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Bouteligier, Sofie, Cities, Networks and Global Environmental Governance (London: Routledge, 2012)Google Scholar.

41 See, for example, the BBC World Service special The Climate Connection (9 December 2010): ‘Part Four The New Leaders’ which has pointed at the C40 as a model of innovative climate leadership: ‘From Toronto to Seoul, Karachi to Addis Ababa the C40 leaders have put aside their naturally competitive instincts to create real environmental benefits for their own citizens and to share them with other cities’, available at: {http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/science/2010/12/101201_climate_connection_prog_four_tx.shtml} accessed 8 January 2012.

42 See, for instance, the interview with C40 Chair special advisor Rohit Aggarwala on E&E TV's OnPoint (27 July 2011), available at: {http://www.eenews.net/tv/video_guide/1373?page=1&sort_type=date} accessed 8 January 2012.

43 A summary of Robert Zoellick's speech at C40 São Paulo Summit (1 June 2011) and of the partnership is available at: {http://go.worldbank.org/BVGELE3NQ0} accessed 17 July 2011.

44 Ibid.

45 Mayor Michael Bloomberg's opening speech, C40 São Paulo Summit (1 June 2011).

46 ARUP report, ‘Climate Action in Megacities: C40 Cities Baseline and Opportunities’ (Version 1.0) released by the C40 Climate Leadership Group and ARUP (1 June 2011), available at: {http://www.arup.com/News/2011_06_June/01_Jun_11_C40_Climate_Action_Megacities_Sao_Paulo.aspx} accessed 24 January 2012.

47 On ‘global deal’ and ‘global civil society’ see respectively Falkner, Robert, Stephan, Hannes, and Vogler, John, ‘International Climate Policy after Copenhagen: Towards a “Building Blocks” Approach’, Global Policy, 1:3 (2010), pp. 252–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Lipschutz, Ronnie D., ‘Reconstructing World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society’, Millennium, 21:3 (1992), pp. 389420CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48 Porter, Michael E. and van der Linde, Claas, ‘Green and Competitive: Ending the Stalemate’, Harvard Business Review, 73:5 (1999), pp. 120–34Google Scholar.

49 Interview with former Greater London Authority communications officer, London (1 July 2009).

50 A problem brought to the forefront of environmental policymaking by the Stern Review.

51 Minutes of the Meeting of the Council of the City of Sydney, Meeting No. 1456 (2 April 2007), p. 229.

52 Beck, Ulrich, ‘Subpolitics: Ecology and the Disintegration of Institutional Power’, Organization Environment, 10:1 (1997), pp. 5265CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53 Beck, Ulrich, World Risk Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999), p. 40Google Scholar.

54 See Lake, David, ‘Global Governance: A Relational Approach’, in Prakash, Aseem and Hart, Jeffrey (eds), Globalization and Governance (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 31–8Google Scholar. On these features in the European case see, amongst others, Cowles, Maria Green, Caporaso, James A., and Risse, Thomas (eds), Transforming Europe: Europeanization and Domestic Change (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

55 Holzer, Boris and Sørensen, Mads P., ‘Rethinking Subpolitics: Beyond the “Iron Cage” of Modern Politics?’, Theory Culture Society, 20:2 (2003), p. 80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

56 Hocking, Brian, ‘Catalytic Diplomacy: Beyond “Newness” and “Decline”’, in Melissen, Jan (ed.), Innovation in Diplomatic Practice (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999), p. 21Google Scholar. I here of course paraphrase Nye, Joseph S., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004)Google Scholar.

57 Beck, Ulrich, The Reinvention of Politics: Rethinking Modernity in the Global Social Order, trans. Ritter, Mark (Cambridge: Polity, 1997), p. 98Google Scholar.

58 List and Pettit, Group Agency, p. 40.

59 I have explored this multiscalar construction more at length by unpacking the C40. See Acuto, Michele, The Urban Link (London: Routledge, 2013)Google Scholar.

60 The C40 steering committee includes New York (chair), London, Los Angeles, Berlin, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Johannesburg, São Paulo, Seoul, and Tokyo.

61 Kern, Kristine and Bulkeley, Harriet, ‘Cities, Europeanization and Multi-level Governance: Governing Climate Change through Transnational Municipal Networks’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 47:2 (2009), pp. 309–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62 Interview with Greater London Authority political officer, London (30 June 2009).

63 This is also confirmed by a recent quantitative study of the C40 developed in Lee, Taedong and van de Meene, Susan, ‘Who Teaches and Who Learns?: Policy Learning through the C40 Cities Climate Network’, Policy Sciences, 45:3 (2012), pp. 199220CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

64 Román, Mikael, ‘Governing from the Middle: The C40 Cities Leadership Group’, Corporate Governance, 10:1 (2010), p. 84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Thus removing the debate on the acceptability of such principles and shifting the discussion on their technical implementation only. Root, Amanda, Market Citizenship: Experiments in Democracy and Globalization (London: SAGE, 2007), p. 44Google Scholar.

66 Beck, Ulrich, World at Risk (Cambridge: Polity, 2007), p. 95Google Scholar.

67 Beck, Ulrich, Power in a Global Age (Cambridge: Polity, 2005), p. 23Google Scholar.

68 Beck, World Risk Society, p. 40.

69 Ferguson, James, The Anti-Politics Machine: ‘Development’, Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), pp. 255–6Google Scholar.

70 See respectively Swyngedouw, Erik, ‘Antinomies of the Postpolitical City: In Search of a Democratic Politics of Environmental Production’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 33:3 (2009), pp. 608CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Lasswell, Harold, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (New York: Peter Smith, 1950)Google Scholar.

71 Harriss, John, Depoliticizing Development: The World Bank and Social Capital (London: Anthem, 2002), p. 11Google Scholar.

72 To this one could also add, as Roman notes, the inherent political agenda of the Clinton Foundation itself, which brings with its implementation support the former President's take on world politics. See Román, ‘Governing from the Middle’, p. 80.

73 This critique is voiced, amongst others in Massey, Doreen, World City (London: Polity, 2007)Google Scholar and Robinson, Jennifer, Ordinary Cities (New York: Routledge, 2006)Google Scholar.

74 Lipschutz, Ronnie D. and Rowe, James K., Regulation for the Rest of Us? (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 173Google Scholar.

75 Swyngedouw, Erik, ‘Neither Global nor Local: “Glocalization” and the Politics of Scale’, in Cox, Kevin R. (ed.), Globalization: Reasserting the Power of the Local (New York: Guilford, 1997), pp. 137–66Google Scholar.