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²⁸ Buzan, From International to World Society?, p. 181.

²⁹ Tonny Brems Knudsen, ‘Fundamental institutions and international organizations: Theorizing continuity and change’, in Knudsen and Navari (eds), International Organization in the Anarchical Society, pp. 23–50 (pp. 38–40).

³⁰ Buzan, From International to World Society?, p. 178.

³¹ Knudsen, ‘Fundamental institutions and international organizations’.

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³⁹ Buzan, An Introduction to the English School of International Relations, p. 20.

⁴⁰ Keene, ‘International society as an ideal type’, p. 107.

⁴¹ Ibid., p. 110.

⁴² This needs not result in pure subjectivism, that is, in the affirmation that there is no material or objective reality. Norms and practices are ‘in some sense, out there, as epistemically objective patterns of actions that confront agents as external realities with which to grapple’. Primary institutions, in contrast, follow a different logic, that of abstraction, thus their aim is ‘not to match actual social instances, but to draw useful connections between them’: Pouliot, Vincent, ‘Practice tracing’, in Bennett, Andrew and Checkel, Jeffrey T. (eds), Process Tracing: From Metaphor to Analytic Tool (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 237–59 (pp. 238–9)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁴⁷ Crepeau, François, Droit D'asile (Brussels: Bruylant, 1995), p. 29Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ UNHCR, ‘Protecting Refugees and the Role of UNHCR’ (2014), p. 3, available at: {https://www.unhcr.org/509a836e9.pdf} accessed 12 October 2019.

⁴⁹ Gil-Bazo, Maria-Teresa, ‘Asylum as a general principle of international law’, International Journal of Refugee Law, 27:1 (2015), pp. 3–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In Ancient Greece, the duties of xenia – hospitality, or ‘guest-friendship’ – extended to those in exile or fleeing persecution, providing an equivalent to the principle of asylum: Isayev, Elena, ‘Between hospitality and asylum: A historical perspective on displaced agency’, International Review of the Red Cross, 99:904 (2017), pp. 75–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁵¹ Boswell, Christina, The Ethics of Refugee Policy (Burlington: Ashgate, 2005), p. 23Google Scholar.

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⁵³ Ibid., p. 7.

⁵⁴ Soguk, Nevzat, States and Strangers (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), p. 116Google Scholar. For an excellent analysis of how the international refugee regime centres on ‘the refugee (as) problem’, that is, the problems that refugees pose, as opposed to the problems which refugees face, see Saunders, Natasha, International Political Theory and the Refugee Problem (London: Routledge 2018)Google Scholar. The third section will further expand on this point.

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⁵⁸ League of Nations, ‘Records of the Seventh Ordinary Session of the Assembly: Text of the Debates, Official Journal’, special supplement, 44 (1926), pp. 86–139 (p. 113).

⁵⁹ Haddad, The Refugee in International Society, p. 203.

⁶⁰ Loescher, Gil, Beyond Charity: International Cooperation And The Global Refugee Crisis (Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 37Google Scholar.

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⁶² See, for example, Alexander Betts and James Milner, ‘Governance of the Global Refugee Regime’, World Refugee Council Research Paper No. 13 (2019); Aleinikoff, Alexander T. and Zamore, Leah, The Arc of Protection: Toward a New International Refugee Regime (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶³ The 1951 Convention defines a refugee as any person who, ‘owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or … unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country’ (Article 1(A)).

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⁶⁶ Goodwin-Gill, Guy S. and McAdam, Jane, The Refugee in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 365Google Scholar; Gil-Bazo, ‘Asylum as a general principle of international law’, p. 533.

⁶⁷ Allain, Jean, ‘The jus cogens nature of non-refoulement’, International Journal of Refugee Law, 13:4 (2001), pp. 553–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Provided by Article 33 of the 1951 Convention, the principle of non-refoulement forbids the return of individuals to a territory where their life or liberty would be in jeopardy, or where they would be in risk of persecution.

⁶⁸ Gil-Bazo, ‘Asylum as a general principle of international law’.

⁶⁹ See, for instance, the Global Compact on Refugees adopted in 2018: ‘[i]t is recognized that a number of States not parties to the international refugee instruments have shown a generous approach to hosting refugees.’ General Assembly, ‘Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees – Global Compact on Refugees’, A 73/12 (New York, 2018), p. 2, available at: {https://www.unhcr.org/gcr/GCR_English.pdf} accessed 12 October 2019.

⁷⁰ UNHCR, ‘UNHCR Global Report 2018’ (2019), p. 103, available at: {http://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/gr2018/pdf/05_Asia.pdf} accessed 12 October 2019.

⁷¹ UNHCR, ‘Bullet Point Summary of the Strategic Presentation on UNHCR's Operations in Asia and the Pacific’, 26th Meeting of Standing Committee (2003), available at: {http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=3e638a794&query=%2246%20March%202003%22} accessed 15 April 2019.

⁷² United Nations in Mongolia, ‘United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)’ (n.d.), available at: {https://www.undp.org/content/unct/mongolia/en/home/agencies/united-nations-high-commissioner-for-refugees--unhcr-.html} accessed 3 October 2019. Another example is Pakistan: whereas not a party to international refugee protection instruments, the government has registered as refugees close to 900,000 undocumented Afghans in 2018. UNHCR, ‘UNHCR Global Report 2018’, p. 108.

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⁷⁷ I am thankful to a peer reviewer for highlighting this point; see also Falkner and Buzan, ‘The emergence of environmental stewardship’, p. 133.

⁷⁸ Earth Reminder, ‘World Refugee Day – History, Themes and Quotes’ (2019), available at: {https://www.earthreminder.com/world-refugee-day/} accessed 12 October 2019.

⁷⁹ UN, ‘World Refugee Day 20 June’ (n.d.), available at: {https://www.un.org/en/events/refugeeday/}.

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⁸⁸ Soguk, States and Strangers, p. 13. For examples of such ‘conventional approaches’, see Holborn, Louise W., Refugees, A Problem Of Our Time: The Work of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 1951–1972 (Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, 1975)Google Scholar; Marrus, The Unwanted; Loescher, Gil, The UNHCR and World Politics: A Perilous Path (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Betts and Loescher (eds), Refugees in International Relations.

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⁹⁹ Ibid., p. 60.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., p. 58.

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¹⁵³ Ibid., p. 29.

¹⁵⁴ Jeremy Diamond and Euan McKirdy, ‘Judge issues blow against Trump's sanctuary city order’, CNN (2017), available at: {https://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/21/politics/trump-sanctuary-cities-executive-order-blocked/index.html} accessed 27 September 2019.

¹⁵⁵ ‘Civil Rights Challenges To Trump Refugee/Visa Order’, University of Michigan Law School, available at: {https://www.clearinghouse.net/results.php?searchSpecialCollection=44} accessed 30 September 2019.

¹⁵⁶ Jennifer Rubin, ‘Most Americans have rejected Trump's xenophobia’, The Washington Post (2019), available at: {https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2019/08/12/americans-have-rejected-trumps-xenophobia-mostly/} accessed 4 October 2019.

¹⁵⁷ Soguk, States and Strangers, p. 50; Agamben, Homo Sacer.