¹ United Nations General Assembly, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility: Report of the Secretary General's High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change (2 December 2004), A/59/565, paras 227–8.

² United Nations, Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards (August 2006), {http://www.unddr.org/iddrs} accessed 31 May 2011.

³ This is true of peacekeeping and peacebuilding more generally: see Zanotti, Laura, ‘Taming Chaos: A Foucauldian View of UN Peacekeeping, Democracy and Normalization’, International Peacekeeping, 13:2 (2006), pp. 150–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁶ Jennings, Kathleen M., ‘Unclear Ends, Unclear Means: Reintegration in Post-war Societies – the Case of Liberia’, Global Governance, 14:3 (2008), p. 332Google Scholar.

⁷ This list is not exhaustive but space constraints have led me to focus on what I see as the two most common and hegemonic narratives.

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⁹ Digeser, Peter, ‘The Fourth Face of Power’, The Journal of Politics, 54:4 (2002), p. 980Google Scholar; Foucault, Michel, The Archaeology of Knowledge (London: Tavistock Publications, 1972), p. 49Google Scholar.

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¹⁴ Mats Berdal, Disarmament and Demobilisation after Civil Wars, Adelphi Paper No. 303 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1996), p. 5.

¹⁵ Cox, Robert W., ‘Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory’, Millennium – Journal of International Studies, 10:2 (1981), pp. 126–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁷ Muggah, Robert, Berdal, Mats, and Torjesen, Stina, ‘Conclusions: Enter an Evidence-Based Security Promotion Agenda’, in Muggah, Robert (ed.), Security and Post-Conflict Reconstruction: Dealing with Fighters in the Aftermath of War (New York: Routledge, 2009), p. 269Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Zanotti, ‘Taming Chaos’, p. 151.

¹⁹ Ibid., p. 152. Here, Zanotti cites Michel Foucault, ‘Lecture at the Collége de France of 29 January 1975’, in Marchetti, Valerio and Salomoni, Antonella (eds), Abnormal: Lectures at the Collége de France 1974–1975 (London: Verso, 2003), pp. 81–107Google Scholar.

²⁰ United Nations General Assembly, ‘Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration: Report of the Secretary-General’ (21 March 2011), A/65/741.

²¹ Colletta and Muggah, ‘Context Matters’.

²² Alden, Chris, Thakur, Monika, and Arnold, Matthew, Militias and the Challenges of Post-Conflict Peace: Silencing the Guns (London: Zed Books, 2011)Google Scholar; Gomes Porto, João, with Alden, Chris and Parsons, Imogen, From Soldiers to Citizens: Demilitarisation of Conflict and Society (London: Ashgate Publishers, 2007)Google Scholar; Torjesen, Stina, ‘New Avenues for Research in the Study of DDR’, Conflict, Security & Development, 9:4 (2009), pp. 411–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Ozerdem, Alpaslan, Post-war Recovery: Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (London: I. B. Tauris, 2008)Google Scholar.

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²⁴ Bøås, Morten, ‘The Liberian Civil War: New War/Old War?’, Global Society, 19:1 (2005), p. 74CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For more background on successive Liberian conflicts, see: Republic of Liberia, Truth and Reconciliation Commission Final Report, Vol. I, ‘Preliminary Findings and Determinations’ (2009), pp. 2–3, 48–53; Ellis, Stephen, The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War (London: Hurst, 1999)Google Scholar; Utas, Mats, Sweet Battlefields: Youth and the Liberian Civil War (Uppsala: Department of Cultural Anthropology and Ethnology, 2003)Google Scholar; Reno, William, Warlord Politics and African States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998)Google Scholar.

²⁵ For more background on DDR programming in Liberia, see Jennings, ‘Unclear Ends’ and ‘Struggle to Satisfy’; McMullin, Jaremey, Lessons Learned Study: UNMIL Reintegration, Rehabilitation and Recovery (RRR) Section: Lessons from DPKO Involvement with Ex-combatant Reintegration (New York: UNDPKO, 2009)Google Scholar; Tamagnini, Andrea and Krafft, Teresa, ‘Strategic Approaches to Reintegration: Lessons Learned from Liberia’, Global Governance, 16:1 (2010), pp. 13–20Google Scholar; Paes, Wolf-Christian, ‘Eyewitness: The Challenges of Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration in Liberia’, International Peacekeeping, 12:2 (2005), pp. 253–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Pugel, James, What the Fighters Say: A Survey of Ex-combatants in Liberia, February–March 2006 (Monrovia: UNDP, 2007)Google Scholar.

²⁶ See, for example, Neil MacFarquhar, ‘Angry Youths Become a Force in Darfur’, New York Times (21 December 2008), A6.

²⁷ Critics such as Richards and Peters were inspired to counter claims made in Kaplan, Robert, The Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams of the Post-Cold War (New York: Vintage, 2001)Google Scholar. See Richards, Paul, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone (Oxford: James Currey, 1996)Google Scholar; Richards, Paul (ed.), No Peace No War: Anthropology of Contemporary Armed Conflicts (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Peters, Krijn, Re-Examining Voluntarism: Youth Combatants in Sierra Leone (Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2011)Google Scholar; Abbink, Jon and Van Kessel, Ineke (eds), Vanguard or Vandals: Youth, Politics and Conflict in Africa (Leiden: Brill, 2005)Google Scholar; and McIntyre, Angela, Aning, Kwesi, and Addo, Prosper, ‘Politics, War, and Youth Culture in Sierra Leone: An Alternative Interpretation’. African Security Review, 11:3 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Their work has subsequently been the subject of further review and critique: see Abdullah, Ibrahim, ‘Bush Path to Destruction: The Origin and Character of the Revolutionary United Front/Sierra Leone’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 36:2 (1998), pp. 203–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Abdullah, Ibrahim (ed.), Between Democracy and Terror: The Sierra Leone Civil War (Dakar: CODESRIA, 2004)Google Scholar; and Florian Leuprecht, ‘Reading in Reverse: A Sociology of Academic Knowledge about the War in Sierra Leone’, MA Thesis in International Studies and Diplomacy, School of Oriental and African Studies (2007).

²⁸ Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest, pp. xvi–xvii.

²⁹ Ibid., p. xx.

³⁰ Willett, ‘Barbarians’, p. 574; Morten Bøås and Dunn, Kevin C., African Guerrillas: Raging against the Machine (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2007), p. 5Google Scholar.

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³² Duffield, Mark, Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security (London: Zed Books, 2004)Google Scholar; Abrahamsen, Rita, ‘A Breeding Ground for Terrorists? Africa and Britain's “War on Terrorism”’, Review of African Political Economy, 31:102 (2004), pp. 677–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Williams, Paul D., ‘Thinking about Security in Africa’, International Affairs, 83:6 (2007), pp. 1021–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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³⁴ UNSC, ‘Fifth Progress Report of the Secretary General on the United Nations Mission in Liberia’ (17 December 2004), S/2004/972, para. 70; and, UNSC, ‘Eighth Progress Report of the Secretary General on the United Nations Mission in Liberia’ (1 September 2005), S/2005/560, para. 15.

³⁵ Richard Hill, Gwendolyn Taylor, and Jonathan Temin, ‘Would You Fight Again? Understanding Liberian Ex-combatant Reintegration’, US Institute of Peace, Special Report. No. 211 (September 2008).

³⁶ Bøås, Morten and Hatløy, Anne, ‘“Getting In, Getting Out”: Militia Membership and Prospects for Re-integration in Post-war Liberia’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 46:1 (2008), p. 51CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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³⁸ UNSC, ‘Eighth Progress Report’, para. 15.

³⁹ UNMIL, May 2009 Hotspot, p. 6, emphasis added.

⁴⁰ Ibid., p. 24, emphasis added.

⁴¹ Maclure, Richard and Denov, Myriam, ‘“I Didn't Want to Die so I Joined Them”: Structuration and the Process of Becoming Boy Soldiers in Sierra Leone’, Terrorism and Political Violence, 18:1 (2006), p. 129CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁴³ Bøås and Hatløy, ‘Getting In’, p. 44.

⁴⁴ Pugel, What the Fighters Say, pp. 35–6.

⁴⁵ Bøås and Hatløy, ‘Getting In’; Pugel, What the Fighters Say.

⁴⁶ UNMIL, May 2009 Hotspot, p. 3; UNMIL, August 2008 Hotspot, p. 2.

⁴⁷ Republic of Liberia, TRC Vol. II, pp. 287–97.

⁴⁸ Willett, ‘Barbarians’, p. 574.

⁴⁹ Tilly, ‘War Making’, pp. 173, 184.

⁵⁰ McCandless, Erin, Second Generation Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) Practices in Peace Operations: A Contribution to the New Horizon Discussion on Challenges and Opportunities for UN Peacekeeping (New York: UNDPKO, 2010), p. 26Google Scholar; UNDP, Practice Note on Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-combatants (New York: UNDP, 2005), p. 43Google Scholar.

⁵¹ UNMIL, May 2009 Hotspot, p. 5.

⁵² UNMIL, ‘RRR & JMAC Hotspot Assessment: Ex-combatants and Chains of Command in Liberia’ (August 2008), pp. 1–2; UNMIL, ‘RRR & JMAC Hotspot Update’ (May 2009), pp. 5, 21.

⁵³ UNMIL, August 2008 Hotspot, pp. 2, 5.

⁵⁴ UNMIL, May 2009 Hotspot, p. 4.

⁵⁵ Ibid., p. 11.

⁵⁶ Ibid., p. 9.

⁵⁷ Ibid.

⁵⁸ Pugel, What the Fighters Say, p. 3.

⁵⁹ UNDP, Practice Note, p. 38.

⁶⁰ UNMIL, August 2008 Hotspot, p. 4.

⁶¹ Author's interview with ex-combatant, Sinoe Rubber Plantation, Sinoe County (10 June 2009).

⁶² Skocpol, Theda, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 111Google Scholar; Ortiz, Stephen, Beyond the Bonus March and GI Bill (New York: New York University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

⁶³ UNSC, ‘Fifth Progress Report’, para. 70.

⁶⁴ Honwana, Alcinda, Child Soldiers in Africa (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), p. 159Google Scholar, emphasis added.

⁶⁵ Bøås and Hatløy, ‘Getting In’, p. 50.

⁶⁶ Ibid., p. 41.

⁶⁷ UNMIL, May 2009 Hotspot, pp. 4, 12.

⁶⁸ Ibid., p. 19; Tamagnini and Krafft, ‘Strategic Approaches’, p. 17.

⁶⁹ Author's interviews with UNMIL/RRR officials, Monrovia (8–19 June 2009).

⁷⁰ UNSC, ‘Eighth Progress Report’, paras 15–24.

⁷¹ Pugel, What the Fighters Say, p. 61.

⁷² Pablo de Greiff, ‘A Normative Conception of Transitional Justice’, in Dealing with the Past, Politorbis No. 50 (2010), p. 18. Elsewhere, de Greiff treats this similar theme, arguing that ‘the idea of compensation in proportion to harm as an unproblematic criterion of justice’ ought to give way to a conception of ‘three goals which are intimately related to justice, namely, recognition, civic trust, and social solidarity’: de Greiff, Pablo, ‘Justice and Reparations’, in de Greiff, Pablo (ed.), The Handbook of Reparations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 451–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁷⁵ Peters, Krijn and Richards, Paul, ‘“Why We Fight”: Voices of Youth Combatants in Sierra Leone’, Africa 68:2 (1998), pp. 183, 210CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Maclure and Denov, ‘I Didn't Want to Die’.

⁷⁶ For an early articulation of the peace dividend, see Graham, Mac, Jolly, Richard, and Smith, Chris, Disarmament and World Development (London: Pergamon, 1986)Google Scholar; and Kingma, Kees (ed.), Demobilization in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Development and Security Impacts (London: MacMillan Press Ltd., 2000), p. 24CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For evidence that peace dividend rhetoric persists, see World Bank, MDRP Final Report: Overview of Program Achievements (Washington, DC: World Bank, July 2010), p. 14.

⁷⁷ Republic of Liberia, TRC Vol. III Title II, p. 72.

⁷⁸ Ibid., p. 57.

⁷⁹ Republic of Liberia, Vol. III Title VII, p. 14.

⁸⁰ See de Greiff, ‘Normative Conception’, pp. 25–6. On these pages, de Greiff refers to Walker, Margaret Urban, ‘Resentment and Assurance’, Moral Repair (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 146CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸¹ Archibald, Stephen and Richards, Paul, ‘Converts to Human Rights? Popular Debate about War and Justice in Rural Central Sierra Leone’, Africa, 72:3 (2002), p. 360CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸² UNDP, Practice Note, p. 51, emphasis added.

⁸³ Ibid., p. 59.

⁸⁴ IDDRS 4.30, 4.10.

⁸⁵ UN, United Nations Policy for Post-conflict Employment Creation, Income Generation and Reintegration (New York: United Nations, May 2008), p. 13Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ Wllibald, Sigrid, ‘Does Money Work? Cash Transfers to Ex-combatants in Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration Processes’, Disasters, 30:3 (2006), p. 326Google Scholar.

⁸⁷ UNAMSIL, ‘The DDR Process in Sierra Leone: Lessons Learned’ (Freetown: UNAMSIL DDR Coordination Section, 2003), p. 8Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ Mutua, Makau, ‘Savages, Victims, and Saviors: The Metaphor of Human Rights’, Harvard International Law Journal, 42:1 (2001), p. 201Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Ibid.

⁹⁰ These labels are taken from Childs, Peter and Williams, Patrick, An Introduction to Postcolonial Theory (London: Longman, 1996), p. 131Google Scholar; see also Bhabha, Homi, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 85–92Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Foucault, Michel, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (London: Penguin New Ed edition, 1991 [orig. pub. 1975])Google Scholar.

⁹² See Duffield, Mark, Security, Development and Unending War: Governing the World of Peoples (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Pugh, Michael, Cooper, Neil, and Turner, Mandy (eds), Whose Peace? Critical Perspectives on the Political Economy of Peacebuilding (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Richmond, Oliver P. (ed.), Palgrave Advances in Peacebuilding: Critical Developments and Approaches (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Deacon, Bob, Hulse, Michelle, and Stubbs, Paul, Global Social Policy: International Organisations and the Future of Welfare (London: Sage, 1997)Google Scholar.

⁹³ Author's interview with former LURD combatants, Voinjama, Liberia (16 April 2007).

⁹⁴ Pugel, What the Fighters Say; Bøås and Hatløy, ‘Getting In’.

⁹⁵ Nordstrom, Carolyn, A Different Kind of War Story (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), pp. 46–7Google Scholar.

⁹⁶ Hanlon, Joseph, ‘Is the International Community Helping to Recreate the Conditions for War in Sierra Leone?’ The Round Table, 94:381 (2005), pp. 459–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mac Ginty, Roger, ‘Indigenous Peace-making versus the Liberal Peace’, Cooperation and Conflict, 43:2 (2008), pp. 139–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁷ Information regarding plantations was obtained via author interviews with UNMIL officials, ex-combatants, Sinoe plantation residents, and local NGOs in Monrovia, Greenville, Sinoe County, and Sinoe Rubber Plantation (June 2009), and at Guthrie Rubber Plantation (April 2007).

⁹⁸ Bøås and Hatløy, ‘Getting In’, p. 49; Jennings, ‘Struggle to Satisfy’, p. 52.

⁹⁹ Hill et al., ‘Would You Fight Again?’ p. 5. See also Christian Bugnion, Luc Lafrenière, Sam Doe, Hirut Tefferi and Cerue Garlo, External Mid-term Evaluation Report of the DDRP in Liberia (Monrovia: UNMIL, 2 October 2006), p. 41.

¹⁰⁰ Author's interview with local county official, UNHCR coordinator, and NCDDRR official, Lofa County (16 April 2007).

¹⁰¹ Pugel, What the Fighters Say, pp. 2, 5.

¹⁰² Peter Uvin, Ex-combatants in Burundi: Why They Joined, Why They Left, How They Fared, MDRP Working Paper No. 3 (Washington, DC: World Bank, October, 2007), pp. 20–1.

¹⁰³ International DDR consultant, conference panel, International parliamentary conference on peacebuilding: tackling state fragility programme, London (30 Jan. 2010). The UNDP Practice Note says the same thing (p. 11).

¹⁰⁴ UNDP, Practice Note, pp. 34, 37.

¹⁰⁵ Culler, Jonathan, On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982), p. 48Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Bøås and Hatloy, ‘Getting In’, pp. 33, 42.

¹⁰⁷ Jabri, Vivienne, Discourses on Violence (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), p. 17Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ Author's interview with UNICEF official, Monrovia (9 June 2009).

¹⁰⁹ Harold J. Monger, Impact Assessment Report on Infrastructure for Employment Projects (Monrovia: Ministry of Public Works, UNMIL, World Bank, and UNDP, 2008), p. 31.

¹¹⁰ Author's interview with UNDP official, Monrovia (15 June 2009).

¹¹¹ Author's interview with NCDDRR official, Monrovia (9 June 2009).

¹¹² Such strategic essentialism is well documented elsewhere: see Schafer, Jessica, ‘A Baby Who Does Not Cry Will Not be Suckled: AMODEG and the Reintegration of Demobilized Soldiers’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 24:1 (1998), pp. 7–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Spivak, Gayatri C., ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’, in Nelson, Cary and Grossberg, Lawrence (eds), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988), p. 298Google Scholar.

¹¹³ Uvin, Ex-combatants in Burundi, p. 20; see also Jones, Owen, Chavs: The Demonisation of the Working Class (London: Verso, 2011)Google Scholar.

¹¹⁴ UNDP, Practice Note, p. 52.

¹¹⁵ UNGA, A/65/741, para. 9. See also IDDRS 4.30.4.11.

¹¹⁶ UNDP, Practice Note, p. 5; see also IDDRS 4.30.4.11 and UNDP, Report on the Reintegration of Demobilized Soldiers in Mozambique (1992–1996) (New York: UNDP, 1997), p. 28Google Scholar.

¹¹⁷ Bugnion et al., Mid-term Evaluation, p. 37.

¹¹⁸ McCandless, Second Generation, p. 4.

¹¹⁹ UNGA, A/65/741, para. 26.

¹²⁰ Keen, ‘Tale of Two Wars’, p. 515.

¹²¹ UNGA, A/65/741, paras 41–5; UN Office for West Africa, Youth Unemployment and Regional Insecurity in West Africa (December 2005); Jennings, ‘Struggle to Satisfy’, p. 214.