1 Slavoj Zizek, ‘Are we in war? Do we have an enemy?’, London Review of Books, 24:10 (2002).

2 For a summary and analysis of the events leading up to Akaev's fall, see Erica Marat, The Tulip Revolution: Kyrgyzstan One Year After (Washington D.C.: Jamestown Foundation, 2006).

3 As Wilson does in his insightful study of attempts to prevent Ukraine's ‘Orange Revolution’, Andrew Wilson, Virtual Politics: Faking Democracy in the Post-Soviet World (London: Yale University Press, 2005).

4 This article focuses on government discourse; for a consideration of the appropriateness of the application of critical security studies to Kyrgyzstan with reference to anti-government movements, see Claire Wilkinson, ‘The Copenhagen School on tour in Kyrgyzstan: is securitization theory useable outside Europe?’, Security Dialogue, 38:1 (2007), pp. 5–25.

5 For this reason, and due to the constraints of space, the article is restricted to a discussion of the period up until the fall of President Akaev. Further light would no-doubt be thrown on this period if post-revolutionary discourse was also investigated, but that is beyond the bounds of this study. It is hoped that the authors, or other researchers, will attempt this in the future.

6 David Campbell, Writing Security: US Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998); see also Simon Dalby, Creating the Second Cold War: The Discourse of Politics (London: Pinter Publishers, 1990).

7 Jutta Weldes, Mark Laffey, Hugh Gusterson, and Raymond Duvall, ‘Introduction: Constructing insecurity’, in Jutta Weldes, Mark Laffey, Hugh Gusterson and Raymond Duvall (eds), Cultures of Insecurity: States, Communities, and the Production of Danger (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), pp. 1–33.

8 For the application of this theoretical approach in Asian contexts, see Roland Bleiker, ‘Divided Korea: Toward a Culture of Reconciliation’ (London: University of Minnesota Press, 2005); Sankaran Krishna, ‘Postcolonial Insecurities: India, Sri Lanka, and the Question of Nationhood’ (London: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); Simon Philpott, ‘Fear of the dark: Indonesia and the Australian national imagination’, Australian Journal of International Affairs, 55:3 (2001) pp. 371–88.

9 Richard Devetak, ‘The Gothic scene of international relations: ghosts, monsters, terror and the sublime after September 11’, Review of International Studies, 31 (2005), pp. 621–43.

10 Ibid., pp. 625, 634–36.

11 Ibid., pp. 636–37.

12 Ibid., p. 639.

13 Cited in ibid., p. 640.

14 Cited in Ibid., p. 641.

15 Ibid., p. 642.

16 Cited in ibid., p. 643.

17 An excellent place to start is the special edition of Central Asian Survey, Chad Thompson and John Heathershaw (eds), ‘Discourses of Danger in Central Asia’, Central Asian Survey, 24:1 (2005), pp. 1–96.

18 Anthony Bichel, ‘Contending Theories of Central Asia: The Virtual Realities of Realism, Critical IR and the Internet’, Ph.D.Dissertation, Political Science, University of Hawaii.

19 Nick Megoran, ‘Preventing conflict by building civil society: post-development theory and a Central Asian–UK policy success story’, Central Asian Survey, 24:1 (2005), pp. 83–96.

20 Nick Megoran, ‘Calming the Ferghana Valley experts’. A review essay of Nancy Lubin, Barnett Rubin, and the Centre for Preventative Action, Calming the Ferghana Valley: Development and Dialogue in the Heart of Central Asia (New York: The Century Foundation Press, 1999); Central Asia Monitor, 5 (2000), pp. 20–25.

21 Anthony Bichel, ‘Air Force One: The cinematic erasure of Central Asia’, Central Asia Monitor, 2 (1998), pp. 16–19.

22 Christine Bichsel, ‘In search of harmony: repairing infrastructure and social relations in the Ferghana Valley’, Central Asian Survey, 24:1 (2005), pp. 53–66; Madeleine Reeves, ‘Locating danger: konfliktologiia and the search for fixity in the Ferghana Valley borderlands’, Central Asian Survey, 24:1 (2005), pp. 67–81.

23 John Heathershaw, ‘The Paradox of Peacebuilding: Peril, Promise, and Small Arms in Tajikistan’, Central Asian Survey, 24:1 (2005).

24 Stuart Horsman, ‘Themes in official discourses on terrorism in Central Asia’, Third World Quarterly, 26:1 (2005), pp. 199–213; Nicole J. Jackson, ‘The Trafficking of Narcotics, Arms and Humans in Central Asia: (Mis)perceptions, policies and realities’, Central Asian Survey, 24:1 (2005).

25 S. Neil MacFarlane and Stina Torjesen, ‘Distortions in the Discourse of Danger: The Case of Small Arms Proliferation in Kyrgyzstan’, Central Asian Survey, 24:1 (2005).

26 Nick Megoran, Gaël Raballand, and Jérôme Bouyjou, ‘Performance, representation, and the economics of border control in Uzbekistan’, Geopolitics, 10:4 (2005), pp. 712–42.

27 Nick Megoran, ‘Contested geographies of globalisation in Kyrgyzstan: de-/re-territorialisation?’, Journal of Central Asian Studies, 6:2 (2002), pp. 13–29; Nick Megoran, ‘The critical geopolitics of the Uzbekistan-Kyrgyzstan Ferghana Valley boundary dispute, 1999–2000’, Political Geography, 23:6 (2004), pp. 731–64; Nick Megoran, ‘The critical geopolitics of danger in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan’, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 23:3 (2005), pp. 555–80.

28 Ibid; see also Nick Megoran, ‘The critical geopolitics of the Uzbekistan-Kyrgyzstan Ferghana Valley boundary dispute, 1999–2000’, Political Geography, 23:6 (2004), pp. 731–64.

29 Nick Megoran, ‘Contested geographies of globalisation in Kyrgyzstan: de-/re-territorialisation?’, Journal of Central Asian Studies, 6:2 (2002), pp. 13–29.

30 Askar Akaev, Dumaia o budushem s optimizmom (Thinking Of the Future With Optimism), (Moskva: Mejdunarodnye otnoshenia, 2004). For a similar analysis by Uzbekistan's President, Islam Karimov, see Islom Karimov, O'zbek Halqi Hech Qachon, Hech Kimga Qaram Bo'lmaidi (The Uzbek Nation Will Never be Dependent upon Anyone), (Tashkent: O'zbekiston, 2005).

31 In particular, they petitioned the court to bar Akaev from running for a fourth term in office. The constitution mandated two terms maximum, but Akaev had already served three.

32 Andrew F. March, ‘From Leninism to Karimovism: hegemony, ideology, and authoritarian legitimation’, Post-Soviet Affairs, 19:4 (2003), pp. 307–36; Andrew F. March, ‘State ideology and the legitimation of authoritarianism: the case of post-Soviet Uzbekistan’, Journal of Political Ideologies, 8:2 (2003), pp. 209–32.

33 See below, footnotes 72 to 82.

34 Mark S. Simpson, The Russian Gothic Novel and Its British Antecedents (Ohio: Slavica Publishers, 1986). See also Neil Cornwell, Gothic-Fantastic in Nineteenth-Century Russian Literature (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999).

35 For example, John Fennell (ed.), Nineteenth-Century Russian Literature (London: Faber & Faber, 1973); Malcolm V. Jones and Robin Feuer Miller (eds), The Cambridge Companion to the Classic Russian Novel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998); Charles A. Moser (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russian Literature. Revised Edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Neil Cornwell (ed.), The Routledge Companion to Russian Literature (London: Routledge, 2001).

36 Such as Fred Botting, Gothic The New Critical Idiom (London: Routledge, 1996); Jerrold E. Hogle (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Gothic Fiction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); David Punter and Glennis Byron, The Gothic (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004).

37 Jerrold E. Hogle (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Gothic Fiction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

38 A move typical of discussion of the Gothic, as argued by Robert Mighall, A Geography of Victorian Gothic Fiction: Mapping History's Nightmares (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).

39 Galip Isen, ‘Discourse of Evil: Speaking Terrorism to Silence’, Reconstruction: Studies in Contemporary Culture; 3:3 (2003), p. 2. See also Martha Feldman, Strategies for Interpreting Qualitative Data (London: Sage, 1995).

40 We have restricted analysis to the pro-government press for two reasons. Firstly, Megoran's study of the same theme at the previous elections (1999/2000) highlighted the government's steadfast refusal to adopt discourses of danger, an entirely different strategy to the opposition, and also an unusual example in the literature on discourses of danger elsewhere. It was thus considered appropriate and interesting to focus on the government story five years on. Secondly, the volume of data generated makes it impossible to adequately consider both government and opposition press in the same article. Further research is necessary to elucidate the opposition's counter narratives, but that is beyond the scope of this text.

41 Matthew Fuhrmann, ‘A Tale of Two Social Capitals. Revolutionary Collective Action in Kyrgyzstan’, Problems of Post-Communism, 53:10 (2006) pp. 16–29.

42 Erica Marat, The Tulip Revolution: Kyrgyzstan One Year After. March 15, 2005–March 24, 2006. (Washington D.C.: Jamestown Foundation, 2006), p. 9.

43 Matthew Fuhrmann, ibid., note 41.

44 Ibid., p. 22.

45 Ibid., p. 23.

46 Ibid.

47 Ibid.

48 Ibid., p. 23.

49 Erica Marat, ‘The Tulip Revolution: Kyrgyzstan One Year After. March 15, 2005–March 24, 2006’ (Washington D.C.: Jamestown Foundation, 2006), pg. 9.

50 President Bush delivers ‘Address to Joint Session of Congress and the American People’, 20 September. Available at: {http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20020920-8.html}, accessed on 1 September 2004.

51 ‘Extremismu-nadejnui zaslon’, (A reliable block against extremism) Slovo Kyrgyzstana (26 October 2004).

52 ‘Joogazyn revolutsiasynyn ozgocholuu kesepetteri’, (The special misfortunes of the tulip revolution) Erkin Too (18 February 2005), p. 9.

53 Abilabek Asankanov, ‘Ethnic conflict in the Osh region in summer 1990: Reasons and lessons’, in Kumar Rupesinghe and Valerii Aleksandrovich Tishkov (eds), Ethnicity and Power in the Contemporary World (Paris: UN University, 1996).

54 ‘Extremismu-nadejnui zaslon’ (A reliable block against extremism) Slovo Kyrgyzstana (26 October 2004).

55 ‘Airymdar bizdi mankurtka ailandyruuga arakettenishuudo’ (Certain people want to turn us into Mankurts) Kyrgyz Tuusu (2–3 February 2005), p. 5.

56 syrtky kuchtor.

57 ‘Myrza Young, diplomatby je instruktorby?’ (Mr. Young, is he a diplomat or an instructor?) Kyrgyz Tuusu (18–21 December 2004).

58 ‘Tazalykty yiyk tut kochmon elim’ (My nomad people, regard the cleanliness as a sacred) Erkin Too (18 February 2005), p. 5.

59 ‘Tazalyk-Ala Toonun uraany sen’ (Cleanliness- you are the slogan of Ala-Too) Kyrgyz Tuusu (15–17 February 2005), p. 8.

60 Ibid.

61 ‘Elibiz “sary chumag” jol berbeit’ (Our people will not tolerate ‘the yellow plague’) Kyrgyz Tuusu (18–20, 21–27, 27–31 January 2005; 4–7 February 2005).

62 ‘Askar Akaevdin reitingi jonundo: Askar Akaev ak kishi’ (About the rating of Askar Akaev: Askar Akaev is a true person) Kyrgyz Tuusu (11–14 February 2005), pp. 9, 11.

63 Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge, 1991 (1966)), p. 3.

64 Ibid.

65 ‘Askar Akaevdin reitingi jonundo: Askar Akaev ak kishi’ (About the rating of Askar Akaev: Askar Akaev is a true person) Kyrgyz Tuusu (11–14 February 2005), pp. 9, 11.

66 V. V. Radlov, Preface in Encyclopaedical Phenomenon of Epos ‘Manas’: Articles Collection, edited by I. Kondrateva (Bishkek: Kyrgyz Encyclopaedia, 1995 (1885), p. 258.

67 ‘Ata jurttun birimdigi yiyk’ (The unity of the motherland is sacred) Kyrgyz Tuusu (11–14 March 2005), p. 9.

68 ‘Elibiz ‘sary chumaga’ jol berbeit’ (Our people will not tolerate ‘the yellow plague’) Kyrgyz Tuusu (18–20, 21–27, 27–31 January 2005; 4–7 February 2005).

69 Ibid.

70 Sabïr Attokurov, Kïrgïz Etnografiyasï: Okuu Kuralï (Kyrgyz Ethnography: Study Aids) (Bishkek: Kïrgïz Mamlekettik Uluttuk Universiteti, 1997), p. 171.

71 William Myer, ‘Islam and Colonialism: Western Perspectives on Central Asia’, Ph.D., University of London, p. 111.

72 Abylabek Asankanov and N. Bekmuhamedova, Akïndar jana Manaschïlar-Kïrgïz Elinin Ruhaniy Madaniyatïn Tüzüüchülör jana Saktoochular (‘Poets and Manaschis: The Creators and Defenders of the Kyrgyz People's spiritual Culture’ (Bishkek: Muras, 1999), pp. 119–23.

73 T. K. Koychuev, et al. (ed.), Manas: Kïrgïz Elinin Baatïrdïk Eposu. Sayakbay Karalaevdin Variantï Boyuncha Akademiyalïk Basïlïshï (Manas: The Kyrgyz People's Heroic Epos') 2 vols. (Bishkek: Kïrgïzstan, 1995).

74 A. Karïpkulov, et al. (ed.), Manas Entsiklopediya (The Manas Encyclopaedia')Vol. 1 and 2 (Bishkek: Muras, 1995).

75 Aron Abramovich Brudnyi, ‘The Kyrgyz people's socio-political thought according to the “Manas” epos’, in A. Tendik, A. Asankanov, T. Omurbekov, A. Abetekov and N. Bekmukhamedova (eds), ‘Manas' Epos and the World's Epic Heritage (Bishkek: Muras, 1995).

76 D. Urustemov, Ö. Tölöbaev, and T. Kaltaev, ‘“Manas” jana Kïrgïzdardïn kosmogoniyalïk tüshünüktörü’ (‘Manas and the cosmological understandings of the Kyrgyz’), in Muras (ed.), Alp Manaschï: Tezister Jïynagï (Bishkek: Kïrgïzstan, 1995).

77 Kadïrkul Aydarkulov, ‘“Manas” Eposundagï Eldik Oyundar: Ilimiy-Populyarduu Makalalar (‘National games in the Manas Epos: Academic-Popular articles’) (Bishkek: Kïrgïzstan, 1994).

78 Bektur Isakov, Manastïn Jeti Osuyatï: Koldonmo (‘Manas' seven principles: a handbook’) (Bishkek: Uchkun, 1997).

79 Toktobay Sulayman, ‘Manas Bababïzdïn Jeti Osuyatï Jönündö Söz’ (‘A word about the seven principles of our father Manas) Osh Jangïrïgï, 84 (18 September 1999), p. 3.

80 Quoted by Sovetbek Baygaziev, ‘“Traybalizm” – kolomtogo kömülgön mina’ (Tribalism – a bomb waiting to go off), Kyrgyz Tuusu, 57–58 (22251–52), (13–15 April 1999), p. 6.

81 D. M. Aidarova, ‘Epic Mentality in the ‘“Manas” Epos’, in A. Tendik, A. Asankanov, T. Omurbekov, A. Abetekov and N. Bekmukhamedova (eds), “Manas” Epos and the World's Epic Heritage (Bishkek: Muras, 1995).

82 Ashïm Jakïpbek, Tengiri Manas (Bishkek: Kïrgïzstan, 1995).

83 ‘Tazalykty yiyk tut kochmon elim’ (My nomad people, regard the cleanliness as a sacred) Erkin Too (18 February 2005), p. 5.

84 ‘Ary joktor oz Ajosyn koralbai’ (Only remorseless people can hate their own Khan) Erkin-Too (25 February 2005), pg. 3.

85 ‘Muz kozgoldu’ (The ice has melted) Kyrgyz Tuusu (15–17 February 2005), p. 13.

86 In the immediate aftermath of the collapse of the Akaev regime, lawless crowds burnt and looted the centre of the capital, Bishkek. For more on whether this was a democratic revolution or a criminal coup, see Matthew Crosston, Fostering Fundamentalism: Terrorism, Democracy and American Engagement in Central Asia (Ashgate: Aldershot, 2006), ch. 4.

87 Chris Seiple, Uzbekistan: civil society in the Heartland (Orbis, 2005), pp. 245–59.

88 Devetak, The Gothic scene of international relations, p. 643.