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2 Regarding the former see, for example, Waltz, N. K., Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1979)Google Scholar; Walt, Stephen M., ‘The Renaissance of Security Studies’, International Studies Quarterly, 35:2 (1991), pp. 211–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Buzan, B., People, States, and Fear. The National Security Problem in International Relations (Brighton, Wheatsheaf Books, 1983)Google Scholar. For the latter see Booth, K., ‘Security and Empancipation’, Review of International Studies, 17 (1991), pp. 313–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tadjbakhsh, Shahrbanou, and Chenoy, Anuradha M.. Human Security. Concepts and Implications (London and New York: Routledge, 2007)Google Scholar, Risley, Amy, ‘Putting People First: Globalization and Human Security’, International Studies Review, 10 (2008), pp. 599–606CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Buzan, Barry and Hansen, Lene, ‘Beyond the Evolution of International Security Studies?’, Security Dialogue, 41:6 (2010), p. 660CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Buzan, Barry, Wæver, Ole, and de Wilde, Jaap, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder; London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998)Google Scholar; Stephen M. Walt, ‘The Renaissance of Security Studies’.

5 Hoogensen, Gunhild, International Relations, Security and Jeremy Bentham (London, New York: Routledge, 2005)Google Scholar; Rothschild, Emma, ‘What Is Security?’, Daedalus, 124:3 (1995)Google Scholar; Wibben, Annick, Feminist Security Studes: A Narrative Approach, Prio New Security Studies (London: Routledge, 2011)Google Scholar.

6 The Review of International Studies has been the venue for two important articles on positive security: Floyd, Rita, ‘Towards a Consequentialist Evaluation of Security: Bringing Together the Copenhagen and the Welsh Schools of Security Studies’, Review of International Studies, 33 (2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roe, Paul, ‘The “Value” of Positive Security’, Review of International Studies, 34 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Roe's analysis builds upon the work of Bill McSweeney: McSweeney, Bill, Security, Identity and Interests: A Sociology of International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Other works that have employed or discussed the notion to varying degrees include: Hoogensen, Gunhild, ‘Gender, Identity, and Human Security: Can We Learn Something from the Case of Women Terrorists?’, Canadian Foreign Policy, 12:1 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hoogensen, Gunhild and Rottem, Svein V., ‘Gender Identity and the Subject of Security’, Security Dialogue, 35:2 (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hoogensen, Gunhild and Stuvøy, Kirsti, ‘Human Security, Gender and Resistance’, Security Dialogue, 37:2 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; ibid.; Stuvøy, Kirsti, ‘Security under Construction: A Bourdieusian Approach to Non-State Crisis Centres in Northwest Russia’ (Doctoral Thesis, University of Tromsø, 2009)Google Scholar; Stuvøy, Kirsti, ‘Human Security Research Practices: Conceptualizing Security for Women's Crisis Centres in Russia’, Security Dialogue, 41:3 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Joshua Cherniss Henry Hardy, ‘Isaiah Berlin’, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), available at: {http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2010/entries/berlin/}; Berlin, Isaiah, ‘Two Concepts of Liberty’, in Berlin, Isaiah (ed.), Four Essays on Liberty (London: Oxford University Press, 1969)Google Scholar.

8 McSweeney, Security, Identity and Interests, p. 15.

9 Roe. ‘The “Value” of Positive Security’.

10 Floyd, ‘Towards a Consequentialist Evaluation of Security’, p. 337.

11 Ibid., p. 338.

12 Roe, ‘The “Value” of Positive Security’, p. 793.

13 Ibid., p. 789.

14 UNDP, Human Development Report 1994: New Dimensions of Human Security (New York: United Nations Development Programme, 1994)Google Scholar.

15 Hoogensen and Rottem, ‘Gender Identity and the Subject of Security’; Hoogensen and Stuvøy, ‘Human Security, Gender and Resistance’; Kari Karamé, ‘Gendering Human Security’, ed. Alberto Valiente Thoresen (University of Tromsø: Centre for Peace Studies, 2005); Truong, Thanh-Dam, Wieringa, Saskia, and Chhachhi, Amrita, ‘Introduction: Gender Questions in the Human Security Framework’, in Truong, Thanh-Dam, Wieringa, Saskia, and Chhachhi, Amrita (eds), Engendering Human Security (London, New York: Zed Books, 2006)Google Scholar; Wibben, Annick T. R., ‘Human Security: Toward an Opening’, Security Dialogue, 39:4 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 See, among others: Krause, Keith, ‘The Key to a Powerful Agenda, If Properly Delimited’, Security Dialogue, 35:3 (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Owen, Taylor, ‘Human Security – Conflict, Critique and Consensus: Colloquium Remarks and a Proposal for a Threshold-Based Definition’, Security Dialogue, 35:3 (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Hansen, Lene, ‘Security as Practice: Discourse Analysis and the Bosnian War’, in Buzan, Barry and Little, Richard (eds), The New International Relations (London/New York: Routledge, 2006)Google Scholar; Stuvøy, ‘Security under Construction: A Bourdieusian Approach to Non-State Crisis Centres in Northwest Russia’.

18 Hansen, ‘Security as Practice’.

19 Stern, Maria, ‘Naming Security – Constructing Identity: “Mayan-Women” in Guatemala on the Eve of “Peace”’, New Approaches to Conflict Analysis (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006)Google Scholar; Stuvøy, ‘Human Security Research Practices: Conceptualizing Security for Women's Crisis Centres in Russia’; Alison, Miranda, ‘Women as Agents of Political Violence: Gendering Security’, Security Dialogue, 35:4 (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Stuvøy's article identifies works such as Chin, Christine B. N., In Service and Servitude. Foreign Female Domestic Workers and the Malaysian ‘Modernity’ Project (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Moon, Katharine H. S., Sex among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.-Korea Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997)Google Scholar; ibid.

20 Walt, ‘The Renaissance of Secuirty Studies’; Wolfers, Arnold, ‘“National Security” as an Ambiguous Symbol’, Political Science Quarterly, 67:4 (1952)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McSweeney, Security, Identity and Interests.

21 Huysmans, Jef, ‘Security! What Do You Mean? From Concept to Thick Signifier’, European Journal of International Relations, 4:2 (1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 McSweeney, Security, Identity and Interests.

23 Durant, Robert F., The Greening of the US Military: Environmental Policy, National Security, and Organizational Change (Washington DC: Georgetown University Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Krohn-Hansen, Christian and Nustad, Knut G., ‘State Formation: Anthropological Perspectives’, in ProfessorEriksen, Thomas Hylland and DrMitchell, Jon P. (eds), Anthropology, Culture and Society (London: Pluto Press 2005)Google Scholar; Kirstine Offerdal. PhD dissertation, University of Oslo (2010).

24 Fierke, K. M., Critical Approaches to International Security (Cambridge, Polity Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Emma Rothschild, ‘What Is Security?’, pp. 53–98.

25 Hoogensen, G. and Rottem, S. V., ‘Gender Identity and the Subject of Security’, Security Dialogue, 35:2 (2004), pp. 155–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Nuruzzaman, M., ‘Paradigms in Conflict: The Contested Claims of Human Security, Critical Theory and Feminism’, Cooperation and Conflict, 41:3 (2006), pp. 285–303CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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28 Floyd, ‘Towards a Consequentialist Evaluation of Security’.

29 Newman, E., ‘Critical human security studies’, Review of International Studies, 36 (2010), pp. 77–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Some important exceptions here come from the gender literature on security, including human security. This is noted in numerous articles including Mohammed Nuruzzaman, ‘Paradigms in Conflict’; Blanchard, Eric M., ‘Gender, International Relations, and the Development of Feminist Security Theory’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 28:41 (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hansen, Lene, ‘The Little Mermaid's Silent Security Dilemma and the Absence of Gender in the Copenhagen School’, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 29:2 (2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hoogensen and Rottem, ‘Gender Identity and the Subject of Security’; Hoogensen and Stuvøy, ‘Human Security, Gender and Resistance’; Wibben Karamé, ‘Human Security: Toward an Opening’.

30 Much of the earlier work on human security, from reports like the Human Development Report on Human Security, to Human Security Now, as well as earlier academic writings, attempted to isolate a universalistic definition, Axworthy, Lloyd, ‘A New Scientific Field and Policy Lens’, Security Dialogue, 35:3 (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; CHS, Human Security Now (Commission on Human Security, 2003)Google Scholar; UNDP, Human Development Report 1994 (1994). See for example, the use of thresholds as one criteria in Owen, ‘Human Security – Conflict, Critique and Consensus’ (2004).

31 Newman, Edward, ‘Critical Human Security Studies’, Review of International Studies, 36 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nuruzzaman, ‘Paradigms in Conflict’.

32 Burgess, P., with and others, Promoting Human Security: Ethical, Normative and Educational Frameworks in Western Europe (Paris: UNESCO, 2007), p. 68Google Scholar.

33 R2P, The Responsibility to Protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2001)Google Scholar.

34 Human Security Report Project, available at: {http://www.hsrgroup.org/human-security-reports/human-security-report.aspx} accessed 28 January 2011.

35 Mack, Andrew, ‘A Signifier of Shared Values’, Security Dialogue, 35:3 (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McRae, Rob and Hubert, Don (eds), Human Security and the New Diplomacy: Protecting People, Promoting Peace (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

36 Bulley, Dan, ‘The Politics of Ethical Foreign Policy: A Responsibility to Protect Whom?’, European Journal of International Relations, 16:3 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 The Copenhagen School provides a good example of this in their argument for privileging the state as a security actor. The critical security approach does recognise other actors, but due to the prominence of the state as a security actor and its use of force, other actors are minimalised. Buzan, Wæver, and de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis.

38 Hoogensen and Stuvøy, ‘Human Security, Gender and Resistance'.

39 In addition to the works already cited above, Acharya, A., ‘A Holistic Paradigm’, Security Dialogue, 35:3 (2004), pp. 355–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Barcelona Study Group, ‘A Human Security Doctrine for Europe: the Barcelona Report of the Study Group on Europe's Security Capabilities’ (Barcelona, 2004); Brauch, H. G., Grin, J., Mesjasz, C., Behera, N. C., Chourou, B., Spring, U. Oswald, Liotta, P. H., Kameri-Mbote, P. (eds), Facing Global Environmental Change – Environmental, Human, Energy, Food, Health and Water Security Concept (Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 2009)Google Scholar; Dahl-Eriksen, T., ‘Human Security: A New Concept which Adds New Dimensions to Human Rights Discussion?’, Human Security Journal, 5 (2007), pp. 16–26Google Scholar; Fox, M. J., ‘Girl Soldier: Human Security and Gendered Insecurity’, Security Dialogue, 35:4 (2004), pp. 465–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hough, P., Understanding Global Security (London, Routledge, 2008)Google Scholar; Krause, K.Williams, M. C., ‘Broadening the Agenda of Security Studies: Politics and Methods’, Mershon International Studies Review, 40 (1996), pp. 229–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roberts, D., ‘Human Security or Human Insecurity? Moving the Debate Forward’, Security Dialogue, 37:2 (2006), pp. 249–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Robinson, F., ‘The Importance of Care in the Theory and Practice of Human Security’, Journal of International Political Theory, 4:2 (2008), pp. 167–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stern, M., Winslow, D. and Eriksen, T. H., ‘A Broad Concept that Encourages Interdisciplinary Thinking’, Security Dialogue, 35 (2001), pp. 361–2Google Scholar; M. J. Fox, ‘Girl Soldiers’, pp. 465–79; Okazawa-Rey, M.Kirk, G., ‘Maximum Security’, Social Justice, 27:3 (2000), pp. 120–32Google Scholar.

40 P. H. Liotta and Taylor Owen, ‘Sense and Symbolism: Europe Takes on Human Security’, Parameters (Autumn 2006), p. 87.

41 Hoogensen, ‘Gender, Identity, and Human Security: Can We Learn Something from the Case of Women Terrorists?’; Wibben, Feminist Security Studes: A Narrative Approach.

42 McSweeney, Security, Identity and Interests. Bill McSweeney accounts for how the word security, both as noun and as verb, has changed in usage over the centuries, and how the noun developed to be synonymous with defence.

43 Ibid., p. 14; in Roe, ‘The “Value” of Positive Security', p. 778.

44 Hoogensen, G., ‘Gender, Identity, and Human Security: Can we learn something from the case of women terrorists?’, Canadian Foreign Policy, 12:1 (2005), p. 124CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Stuvøy, ‘Human Security Research Practices: Conceptualizing Security for Women's Crisis Centres in Russia’.

46 Roe, ‘The “Value” of Positive Security’, p. 793.

47 McSweeney, Security, Identity and Interests.

48 Ibid., p. 155.

49 Bubandt, Nils, ‘Vernacular Security: The Politics of Feeling Safe in Global, National, and Local Worlds’, Security Dialogue, 36:3 (2005), p. 291CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

50 Hough, Peter, Understanding Global Security, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2008)Google Scholar.

51 Bubandt, ‘Vernacular Security’, p. 291.

52 Newman, Edward, ‘Critical Human Security Studies’, Review of International Studies, 36 (2010), pp. 77–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53 McDonald, Matt, ‘Securitization and the Construction of Security’, European Journal of International Relations, 14:4 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 Fierke, K. M., Critical Approaches to International Security (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Rothschild, ‘What Is Security?’.

55 McSweeney, Security, Identity and Interests.

56 Maoz, Z., National Choices and International Processes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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58 Cynthia, Enloe, Globalization and Militarism: Feminists Make the Link (Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2007)Google Scholar; Barry, Jane, and Jefferys, Anna, A Bridge Too Far: Aid Agencies and the Military in Humanitarian Response (London: Overseas Development Institute, 2002)Google Scholar; Mockaitis, Thomas R., ‘Reluctant Partners: Civil-Military Cooperation in Kosovo’, Small Wars & Insurgencies, 15:2 (2004), pp. 38–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

59 Burgess, Peter (ed.), The Routledge Handbook of New Security Studies (London: Routledge, 2010)Google Scholar; Grayson, Kyle, ‘Human Security as Power/Knowledge: The Biopolitics of a Defintional Debate’, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 21:3 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, also see earlier footnotes.

60 These tensions between negative security approaches – increased militarised measures including barricaded government buildings, armed guards, surveillance, etc. – and positive security approaches that attempt to increase societal trust through political engagement and dialogue, have already been made clear in the ways in which Norway has handled the attacks of 22 July 2011. It remains to be seen what sort of balance between negative and positive security will result.

61 Buzan, Wæver, and de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis.

62 Hoogensen and Rottem, ‘Gender Identity and the Subject of Security’; Sjoberg, Laura and Gentry, Caron E., Mothers, Monsters, Whores: Women's Violence in Global Politics (New York: Zed Books, 2007)Google Scholar; Stern, ‘Naming Security – Constructing Identity’; Wibben, Feminist Security Studes: A Narrative Approach.

63 Bubandt, ‘Vernacular Security’.

64 Barnett, Jon, ‘Security and Climate Change’, Global Environmental Change, 13 (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schwartz, Peter and Randall, Doug, An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and Its Implications for United States National Security (Emeryville: Global Business Network, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Trombetta, Maria Julia, ‘Environmental Security and Climate Change: Analysing Discourse’, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 21:4 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 The following model is based on an initial multi-actor framework that was, since 2004, initially developed under the International Polar Year project ‘The impacts of oil and gas activity on peoples of the Arctic using a multiple securities perspective’ (2007–2012). The model has since been influenced by empirical work in the IPY project, CREN project on civil-military relations, as well as discussions with the researchers at the Human Security Program, University of Tromsø. See further: Hoogensen and others, ‘Human Security in the Arctic – Yes, It Is Relevant!’.

66 See, for example, Booth, Ken, ‘Security and Empancipation’, Review of International Studies, 17 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Floyd, ‘Towards a Consequentialist Evaluation of Security’. Note too that the military and policymakers, though acting on behalf of the same state, are not to be conflated as one-and-the-same actor as they may not hold the same security perspective (see Durant, The Greening of the US Military).

67 UNDP, Human Development Report 1994.

68 Hoogensen, ‘Gender, Identity, and Human Security: Can We Learn Something from the Case of Women Terrorists?’

69 Gunhild Hoogensen and Jardar Gjørv, ‘Cimic Requirements and Education in Norway (Cren): Final Report’ (Tromsø: University of Tromsø, forthcoming); NATO, Ajp-9 Nato Civil-Military Co-Operation (Cimic) Doctrine 2003. AJP-9.

70 These attempts and their developments can be followed through the various combinations, manifestations and permutations of civil-military cooperation, articulated at the tactical, operational and strategic levels, known as CIMIC (Civil-Military Cooperation at NATO), CIMCoord (Civil-Military Coordination), Civil-Military Operations, Civil-Military planning, enhanced civil-military cooperation, civil-military interaction, the Comprehensive Approach, Effect-Based Approach Operations (EBAO), Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs), Integrated Operations, etc. In all cases it is recognised that security cannot be sustained (and here security is limited to just physical security) without attending to a broader scope of factors that create a fully secure situation (economic, social, etc.).

71 Mona W Claussen, ‘Danskene Har Startet Debatten Norske Politikere Venter Med (the Danish Have Started the Debate That Norwegian Politicians Continue to Wait for)’, Aftenposten (2011); Marie Melgård and others, ‘Med Fakler Og Roser Gir Vi Verden Beskjed. Vi Lar Ikke Frykten Knekke Oss (with Torches and Roses We Send the World a Message. We Do Not Let Fear Break Us)’, Dagbladet (2011); Mathias Vedeler, ‘Sikring Av Gaten Var Forsinket (Securing the Street Was Delayed)’, Aftenposten (2011).

72 Floyd, ‘Towards a Consequentialist Evaluation of Security’, p. 339.

73 Stuvøy, ‘Security under Construction: A Bourdieusian Approach to Non-State Crisis Centres in Northwest Russia’, p. 33.

74 Ibid.

75 O'Brien, Karen, St. Clair, Asunciòn, and Kristoffersen, Berit (eds), Climate Change, Ethics and Human Security (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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78 This is reflected in the Counter-Insurgency (COIN) Doctrine that has informed military practices in both Iraq and Afghanistan.

79 Winslow, Donna, ‘Strange Bedfellows: NGOs and the Military in Humanitarian Crises’, in Bollen, Myriame T. I. B., Janssens, R.V., Kirkels, H. F. M, and Soeters, J. L. M (eds), Civil-Military Cooperation: A Marriage of Reason (Breda: Royal Netherlands Military Academy, 2002), pp. 49–64Google Scholar; see also Damen, R., and Olislagers, M. S. F.. Development of a Decision Framework for the Dutch Military to Inventory and Prioritize Humanitarian Tasks in a Complex Emergency (Enschede: University of Twente, 2004)Google Scholar; Mockaitis, Thomas R., ‘Reluctant Partners: Civil-Military Cooperation in Kosovo’, Small Wars & Insurgencies, 15:2 (2004), pp. 38–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Donini, A., ‘Local Perceptions of Assistance to Afghanistan’, International Peacekeeping, 14:1 (2007), pp. 158–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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82 ILO report on gender equality, CAI and sewing centres.

83 Soraya Sarhaddi Nelson, ‘Woman to Woman: A New Strategy in Afghanistan’ (NPR, 2009); ibid.

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89 See recent newspaper discussions regarding security in the Norwegian North, including perceptions of Russia: Brigt Dale and Berit Kristoffersen, ‘Fare I Nord (Danger in the North)’, Aftenposten (15 October 2010); Gunnar Thorenfeldt, ‘Nato-Leder Advarer Mot “Kald Krig” I Arktis (Nato Leader Warns against Cold War in the Arctic)’, Dagbladet (12 October 2010); Berkman, Paul Arthur, ‘Environmental Security in the Arctic Ocean: Promoting Co-Operation and Preventing Conflict’, Whitehall Papers (London: Royal United Services Institute, 2010)Google Scholar.

90 Einarsson et al. (eds), Arctic Human Development Report.

91 In fact, Barry Buzan and Ole Wæver overlooked this region, despite its previous Cold War significance and current importance regarding climate change, in their book on regional security complexes, Buzan, B. and Wæver, O., Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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93 Mari Torsdotter Hauge, ‘Enige Om Delelinje I Barentshavet Etter 40 År (Agreement on Demarcation Line in the Barents Sea after 40 Years)’, Aftenposten (27 April 2011).

94 About Arctic Council, {http://arctic-council.org/article/about} accessed 7 August 2011.

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97 Janice Gross Stein and Thomas S. Axeworthy, ‘The Arctic Council Is Best Way for Canada to Resolve Its Territorial Disputes’, Globe and Mail (2011).

98 Kristoffersen, Berit and Young, Stephen, ‘Geographies of Security and Statehood in Norway's “Battle of the North”’, Geoforum, 41:4 (2009)Google Scholar.

99 ‘Gas fuels new cold war in the Arctic’, Scotland on Sunday (4 June 2006) available at: {http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=824612006} accessed 31 March 2007.

100 These ‘local’ or community voices are coming more and more to the fore through the research and reports conducted through the Arctic Council, through the International Polar Year (2006–2008) initiative, as well as through various Arctic NGOs and scientific organisations such as the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) and the International Arctic Social Science Association (IASSA).

101 Chris Arsenault, ‘A Scramble for Thearctic’, AlJazeera English edition (8 December 2010), available at: {http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2010/11/20101130181427770987.html}.