1 The other regnant queens are Mary I, Elizabeth I, Anne, Victoria, and Elizabeth II.

2 The dates of Mary's regencies are 11 June to 10 September 1690; 6 January to 10 April and 1 May to 19 October 1691; 5 March to 18 October 1692; 24 March to 29 October 1693; and 6 May to 9 November 1694.

3 See, for example, Stephen Baxter, William III (London, 1966); Henry Horwitz, Parliament, Policy, and Politics in the Reign of William III (Manchester, I977); Jones, J. R., The Revolution of 1688 in England (London, 1972)Google Scholar; and John Miller, The Glorious Revolution (Seminar Studies in History, ed. Roger Lockyer [London, 1983]).

4 There are at least five biographies; the most recent is Hamilton, Elizabeth, William's Mary (London, 1972)Google Scholar. A recent textbook stated that “Mary was ignorant of history, politics, science and mathematics, her spelling was quaint, her grammar faulty, and her 'mind as sluggish as an island river.’ ” See Lacey Smith, Baldwin, This Realm of England 1399 to 1688 (Lexington, MA, 1971), 274 Google Scholar.

5 For example, Yates, Frances A., Astraea: The Imperial Theme in the Sixteenth Century (London, 1975)Google Scholar, esp. 29-87, “Queen Elizabeth as Astraea”; King, John N., “The Godly Woman in Elizabethan Iconography,” Renaissance Quarterly 38 (1985): 41–84 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Turner, Victor, The Ritual Process, Structure and Anti-Structure (Chicago, 1968)Google Scholar; Goffman, Erving, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (London, 1959)Google Scholar; Anglo, Sidney, Spectacle, Pageantry, and Early Tudor Policy (Oxford, 1969)Google Scholar; Reedy, Gerard, “Mystical Politics: The Imagery of Charles H's Coronation,” in Studies in Change and Revolution: Aspects of English Intellectual History 1640-1800 (New York, 1972), 19–42 Google Scholar; and Schwoerer, Lois G., “The Glorious Revolution as Spectacle: A New Perspective,” in England's Rise to Greatness, 1660-1762, ed. Stephen B. Baxter (Berkeley, 1983), 109-49Google Scholar.

6 Many have since been printed in such collections as George de F. Lord, ed., Poems on Affairs of State: August Satirical Verse, 1660-174, 7 vols. (New Haven and London, 1963-75), vols. 4, 5; The Pepys Ballads, ed. Hyder E. Rollins, (Cambridge, MA, 1929- 32), 8 vols.; and Roxburghe Ballads, eds. W. Chappel and J. W. Ebsworth (Hertford, 1871-99), vols. 3-6.

7 Statutes of the Realm 3: 471-74, 655-62, 955-58.

8 The Venetian ambassador in 15 31 believed that English law excluded females from inheriting the throne, an inaccurate view, but suggestive of the problem. See Pollard, A. F., Henry VIII (London, 1919), 179 Google Scholar. Howard Nenner called my attention to this information.

9 Warnicke, Retha M., “Queens Regnant and the Royal Supremacy, 1525-1587,” in Women of the English Renaissance and Reformation, ed. idem (Westport, CT, 1983), 47–50 Google Scholar; Sir William Holdsworth, A History of English Law, 3d ed. (London, 1922-52) 10: 448- 52.

10 Warnicke, “Queens Regnant,” 53-55; Nenner, Howard, By Colour of Law, Legal Culture and Constitutional Politics in England, 1660-1689 (Chicago, 1977), 179 Google Scholar and n. 162. 1 ‘ Loach, Jennifer, Parliament and the Crown in the Reign of Mary Tudor (Oxford, 1986)Google Scholar, 1 —11.

12 Ibid., 96-97, 217; Warnicke, “Queens Regnant,” 57-60; see also W. H. Dunham, ”Regal Power and the Rule of Law: A Tudor Paradox, “Journal of British Studies 3 (1963- 64): 44-46. I thank Henry Horwitz for calling my attention to this issue.

13 Statutes of the Realm 4, pt. 1: 222.

14 Holdsworth, A History of English Law, 10: 452, asserts that no previous law dealt with the powers of a consort king.

15 Statues of the Realm 4, pt. 1: 222-26; Loach, Parliament and the Crown in the Reign of Mary Tudor, 15.

16 Maria Axton, The Queen's Two Bodies: Drama and the Elizabethan Succession (Royal Historical Society Studies in History [London, 1977]).

27 Neale, J. E., Queen Elizabeth I, A Biography (New York, 1957), 52 Google Scholar.

18 Litzen, Veikko, A War of Roses and Lilies: The Theme of Succession in Sir John Fortescue's Works (Helsinki, 1971), 18–20 Google Scholar.

19 For a discussion of the arguments respecting woman's rule in the sixteenth century, see Mortimer Levine, “The Place of Women in Tudor Government,” in Tudor Rule and Revolution: Essays for G. R. Elton from his American Friends, ed. Delloyd J. Guth and John W. McKenna (Cambridge, 1982), 109-23; Constance Jordan, “Woman's Rule in Sixteenth- Century British Political Thought,” Renaissance Quarterly 40 (1987): 421-51.

20 Bodin, , Six Books (London, 1606), 746 Google Scholar.

21 Aylmer, , Harhorowe (Strasborowe, 1559)Google Scholar, sig. B2, B3, C, G [4].

22 De Republica Anglorum by Sir Thomas Smith, ed. Mary Dewar (Cambridge, 1982), 64-65.

23 Leslie, Defence of Princesse Marie (London, 1969), sig. 119, 127, 144, I44v, 146.

24 Sir Thomas Craig of Riccartoun, Concerning The Rights Of Succession To The Kingdom of England (London, 1703), 83, 84, 85, 131. The book was written in Latin during the reign of Elizabeth I.

25 See, for example, Higgins, Patricia, “The Reaction of Women, with Special Reference to Women Petitioners, ” in Politics, Religion and the English Revolution, 1640-1649, ed. Brian Manning (London, 1973), 190–217 Google Scholar; Thomas, Keith, “Women and the Civil War Sects,” Past and Present 53 (1971)Google Scholar: 90-108.

26 de la Barre, Poulain, The woman as good as the man (London, 1677), 169 Google Scholar.

27 William Camden, The History of the Most Renowned And Victorious Princess Elizabeth Late Queen of England was reprinted in 1675 and in 1688 (with a new translation). See the text edited with an introduction by Wallace T. Mac Caffrey, in Classics of British Historical Literature, ed. John Clive (Chicago, 1970). Also Clarke, Samuel, The History Of The Glorious Life, Reign, and Death Of the Illustrious Queen Elizabeth, 2d ed. (London, 1683)Google Scholar, and The Secret History of the Most Renowned Q. Elizabeth, and the E. of Essex By a Person of Quality (London, 1680), reissued in 1689 and 1695.

28 R. B. [Nathaniel Crouch], Female Excellency, or the Ladies Glory, Illustrated In the Worthy Lives and Memorable Actions of Nine Famous Women (London, 1688), preface.

29 Sidney, Discourses (London, 1698), 40-41.

30 For “English Attitudes towards Women, 1640-1700,” see Michel, Robert H., Canadian Journal of History 13 (1978)CrossRefGoogle Scholar: 35-60, and Jerome Nadelhaft, “The Englishwoman's Sexual Civil War: Feminist Attitudes Towards Men, Women, and Marriage, 1650- 1740,” Journal of the History of Ideas 43 (1982): 555-79. For female political activity, see Schwoerer, , “Women and the Glorious Revolution,” Albion 18 (1986)CrossRefGoogle Scholar: 195-218.

31 See Baxter, Stephen B., William III (London, 1966), 165 Google Scholar, 170, 223-24.

32 For the vicious satirical verse about the birth, see Grump, Galbraith N., ed., Poems on Affairs of State (New Haven, 1968)Google Scholar4: 235-72. For William's Declaration of Reasons, see Schwoerer, , “Propaganda in the Revolution of 1688-69,” American Historical Review 18 (1977)Google Scholar: 843-74.

33 Andrew Browning, Thomas Osborne, Earl ofDanby and duke of Leeds (1632-1712) (Glasgow, 1944-51) 1:421-33.

34 Grey, Anchitell, Debates of the House of Commons, from the year 1667 to the year 1694, (London, 1763)Google Scholar 9: 56-58, 60-61. For the Convention, see Schwoerer, , The Declaration of Rights, 1689 (Baltimore, 1981), 171–231 Google Scholar.

35 Reflections Upon the Present State of the Nation (London, 1689). This tract also appeared under the title Proposals Humbly Offer ‘d in Behalf of the Princess of Orange. Another piece by a “Maryite” was Reflections upon Our Late and Present Proceedings in England (London, 1689), esp. 11.

36 Schwoerer, “A Jornall of the Convention at Westminster begun the 22 of January 1688/89,” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 49 (1976): 242-63; Grey, Debates 9:23.

37 Grey, Debates 9:64.

38 Dr. Williams's Library, Roger Morrice, “Entr'ing Book, Being an Historical Register of Occurrences from April, Anno, 1677 to April 1691,” 2: 434. I have used a photocopy from the library of the late Douglas R. Lacey, now in my possession.

39 Reasons for crowning the Prince and Princess of Orange King and Queen jointly, and for placing the Executive Power in the Prince alone (London, 1689), a broadside. A tract that argued against elevating Mary alone or in a dual monarchy was Four Questions Debated (London, 1689), 6-8.

40 Burnet, Bishop Gilbert, History of His Own Time: with Notes by the Earls ofDartmouth and Hardwicke, Speaker Onslow, and Dean Swift (Oxford, 1833)Google Scholar 3: 396-97.

41 Schwoerer, Declaration of Rights, 144.

42 National Library of Wales, Ottley Papers, 1469 (11).

43 Nenner, By Colour of Law, passim.

44 Sir John Dalrymple, Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland From The Dissolution of the last Parliament of Charles II until the Sea-Battle off La Hogue (London and Edinburgh, 177- 73), 2: app., pt. 1, 342.

45 Burnet, History of His Own Time 3: 396.

46 Doebner, R., ed., Memoirs of Mary, Queen of England (1689-93) Together with Her Letters (London and Leipzig, 1886), 20 Google Scholar, 23, 25; Burnet, History of His Own Time 3:311, 393.

47 Smith, Hilda, Reason's Disciples. Seventeenth-Century English Feminists (Urbana, 198)Google Scholar, esp. ch. 2.

48 Burnet, History of His Own Time 3: 395.

49 For Sancroft, see Strickland, Agnes, Lives of the Queens of England, 8 vols. (London, 1860)Google Scholar 7: 199. In a letter dated 9 April, 1689, King James II excused Mary's actions to date on grounds of the obedience she owed to her husband, but warned that, if she allowed herself to be crowned, she would feel the “curse of an angry father … as well as of a God who commanded obedience to parents,” Dalrymple, Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland 2: app., pt. 2, 15. At Mary's death Pope Innocent XII preached a pointed sermon on the Fifth Commandment: Dictionary of National Biography.

50 The Privy Council issued a broadside dated 16 February, 1689 ordering that, until a printed version was available, changes in prayers and litanies to show the dual monarchy should be made by hand.

51 Schwoerer, Declaration of Rights, 255.

52 Legg, John Wickham, ed., Three Coronation Orders (London, 1900), 21–26 Google Scholar; Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, 7: 210; Ceremonial at the Coronation Of Their Most Excellent majesties King William and Queen Mary, The Eleventh Day of this Instant April, 1689, Published by Order of the duke of Norfolk, Earl-Marshal of England. See also the present author's “The Coronation of William and Mary,” delivered in Washington, D.C., in April, 1989, at the conference “The Glorious Revolution, 1688-89: Changing Perspectives,” to be published with other conference papers.

53 Edward Hawkins, compiler, and Augustus W. Franks and Herbert A. Grueber, eds., Medallic Illustrations of the History of Great Britain and Ireland to the Death of George II, 2 vols. (London, 1885) 1: 662-63, 666-69, nos - 25 (the official coronation medal), 33-37, 39.

54 Ibid., 669-73, 675, 684, 685, 695, nos. 40, 41, 43, 45, 50, 66, 68, 69, 92-94.

55 Ibid., 676, no. 51. “Non Patitur Supposititios” and “Excellentissime Princip. Ius Regni Vindicatum eiecto supposititio.”

56 The lion as the symbol of the Netherlands was well-established. See George, M. Dorothy, English Political Caricature to 1192: A Study of Opinion and Propaganda (Oxford, 1959), 44 Google Scholar a n d n. 2. It appeared on other medals: e.g., Hawkins, Medallic Illustrations of the History of Great Britain 1: 638, no. 63; 641, no. 67; 648, no. 2; 650, no. 4. The description of William as a lion also figured in poems: e.g., A Congratulatory Poem to His Highness the Prince of Orange upon His Arrival in London (London, 1688), and George Stepney, An Epistle to Charles Montague Esq., on His Majesty's Voyage to Holland (licensed 31 January, 1690/91), p. 7. The cap of liberty was an ancient device, dating back to the Roman Republic and symbolizing a free man. Slaves put it on the moment they were freed. It had been used by the Dutch in the sixteenth century as a symbol signifying their fight for liberty from their Spanish overlords. See George, English Political Caricature, 44 and C. Daremberg, E. Saglio, and Potter, E., Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines d'après les textes et les monuments (Paris, 1905)Google Scholar vol. 4, pt. 1: 479-81. The cap of liberty appeared on many other medals, e.g., Hawkins, Medallic Illustrations 1: 641, no. 67:650, no. 4; 657, no. 17; 668, no. 39.

57 The snake symbolized several qualities but was most enduringly associated with Satan or evil. See Hall, James, Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art (London, 1974), 285 Google Scholar.

58 Hawkins, Medallic Illustrations i: 674-75, no. 48. The fable of Saturn and Jupiter appeared also in poetry, as for example, Stepney, An Epistle to Charles Montague, Esq., on his Majesty's Voyage to Holland, 7.

59 Burnet, History of His Own Time 3: 397.

60 de Beer, E. S., ed., The Diary of John Evelyn (London, 1955)Google Scholar 4: 624; Doebner, ed., Memoirs of Mary, Queen of England, II.

61 A contemporary description of Mary and William is found in F. J. L. Kramer, ed., “Mémoires de Monsier de B . .. ou Anecdotes, Tant de la cour du Prince d'Orange Guillaume III, que des principaux siegneurs de république de ce temps,” Bijdragen en Mededeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap 19 (1898): 79, 82. Mary was about five feet ten inches tall, a height she inherited from her great-grandmother Mary, Queen of Scots, who stood six feet tall. By contrast the prince was a rather short man of about five feet five inches, with a thin, slight body, a slightly deformed back, and a face marred by a huge beak-like nose and black, poorly aligned teeth. His only attractive features were his bright eyes and long, thick, naturally wavy hair.

62 The Subjects Satisfaction. Being a New Song of the proclaiming of King William and Queen Mary (London, 1689). Mary had suffered one, possibly two, miscarriages in 1678 and had not conceived since then, but in 1691, at the age of twenty-nine, she was still hopeful of becoming pregnant. See Chapman, Hester, Mary II, Queen of England (London, 1953), 92 Google Scholar, 93, 225. 232.

63 Arwaker, Edmund, A Votive Table, Consecrated To the Church's Deliverers, the present King and Queen (London, 1689)Google Scholar.

64 A Pray er for the Prince and Princess oj Orange (London, 1688), trans, from the French.

65 Rymer, Thomas, A Poem on the Arrival of Queen Mary, February the 12th, 1689 (London, 1689)Google Scholar.

66 Behn, , A Congratulatory Poem to her Sacred Majesty Queen Mary, upon her Arrival in England (London, 1689)Google Scholar.

67 Prayerfor the Prince and Princess of Orange.

68 Quoted in Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England 7: 215.

69 British Library, Add. MSS 36, 707, fol. 65.

70 Hawkins, Medallic Illustrations, I: 662-63, n o - 25- A Letter from a Gentleman in the Country to his Correspondent in the City, concerning the Coronation Medal, distributed April II, 1689 (London, i6April, 1689) in A Collection oj'Scarce and Valuable Tracts …Selected from … Public as well as Private Libraries, Particularly That of the Late Lord Sotners, ed. Walter Scott (London, 1809-15) 10: 210-11.

71 Chapman, Mary II, Queen of England, 183-84; Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England 7: 223. Other plays, such as Richard III, whose themes seemed to gloss current events, were also banned.

72 Waterson, Nellie M., Mary II, Queen of England, 1689-1694 (Durham, NC, 1928), 45–46 Google Scholar.

73 Grey, Debates 10: 98-108, 114-33, esp. I03, I04, 118, 121, 128.

74 Ibid., 127, 128, 130.

75 Statutes of the Realm 6: 170.

76 Walsh, William, A Dialogue Concerning Women; Being a Defence Of the Sex. Written to Eugenia (London, 1691), 132 Google Scholar.

77 Tate, Nahum, A Present for the Ladies: being an historical vindication ojthe female sex (London, 1692), 96 Google Scholar, 100. 78 Brown, Edmund, The Character of Queen Elizabeth. Or, A Full and Clear Account of her Policies (London, 1693)Google Scholar.

79 Doebner, Memoirs of Mary, 58-62.

80 Hawkins, Medallic Illustrations, 2:81, no. 294.

81 Quoted in Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, 7: 289, 317. The reference was to Jack Howe (1657-1722), a fervent whig, who served as Mary's vice-chamberlain from 1689 to 1692.

82 Dalrymple, Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland 2: app., pt. 2, 121.

83 Doebner, Memoirs of Mary, 30.

84 Dalrymple, Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland 2: app., pt. 2, 128; cf. 134, 138.

85 Ibid., 119.

86 Ibid., 143.

87 Ibid., 141.

88 Doebner, Memoirs of Mary, 45; Chapman, Mary II, 234.

89 Dalrymple, Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland 2: app., pt. 2, 135.

90 Ibid., 132, 141.

91 Ibid., 142; Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England 7: 369.

92 Sir Godfrey Kneller's portrait of Mary (collection of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II) exemplifies both her majesty and beauty, as does that by William Wissing (Kensington Palace). Neither portrait features allegorical designs. See J. Douglas Stewart, Sir Godfrey Kneller and The English Baroque Portraiture.

93 Chapman, Mary II, 234-35.

94 Ibid., 215-16.

95 De Beer, ed., The Diary of John Evelyn 5: 201, n. 2, gives figures for the death rate from smallpox in the era. In 1694, 1,683 people died of the disease.

96 Burnet, Gilbert, An Essay on the Memory of the late Queen (Dublin, 1695), 37 Google Scholar; Baxter, William III, 320; London Gazette, issues covering iojanuary through 12 May, 1695.

97 London Gazette, 28 March-i April, 1695.

98 Paul S. Fritz, “The Trade in Death: The Royal Funerals in England, 1685-1830,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 15 (spring 1982): 291-316.

99 London Gazette, 4-7 March, 1694/95; De Beer, ed., The Diary of John Evelyn 5:204. A print of the mausoleum serves as frontispiece for Nahum Tate's poem Mausolaeum: A Funeral Poem On our late Gracious sovereign Queen Mary, Of Blessed Memory (London, 1695).

100 An Ode, Occasion'd by the Death Of Her Sacred Majesty, by a Young Lady (licensed 9 January, 1694-5), and A Poem on the Death of the Queen, by a Gentlewoman of Quality (licensed 26 February, 1695).

101 Brady, Nicholas, A Sermon Preached at White-Hall, March 3, 1694-95. Upon Occasion of Her Late Majesties Death; Before The Right Honourable the Countess of Derby, and the rest of the Mourning Ladies (London, 1695)Google Scholar, Epistle Dedicatory.

102 Howe, John, A Discourse relating To the Much-lamented Death, and Solemn Funeral, Of Our Incomparable and most Gracious Queen Mary, Of most Blessed Memory (London, 1695)Google Scholar was dedicated to Lady Russell.

103 London Gazette, 4-7 March, 1694/95.

104 About n o printed sermons and elegies appeared, as compared with approximately thirty for Charles II, William III, and Anne. Even for Elizabeth I there were no more than fifteen pieces. At least thirty-six medals were cast at Mary's death, as compared with three for Charles II, nine for William, and none for Anne. The popularity of using medals to commemorate events declined in the eighteenth century, as Hawkins explains in Medallic Illustrations of the History of Creat Britain 1: xx-xxi.

105 Tenison, Thomas. A Sermon Preached at the Funeral Of Her late Majesty Queen Mary Of Ever Blessed Memory in the Abbey-Church in Westminster. Upon March 5, 1694/5 (London, 1695), 4–5 Google Scholar.

106 Abbadie, Jacques, A Panegyric On our late Sovereign Lady Mary Queen of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, Of Glorious and Immortal Memory. Who Died at Kensington, on the 28th. of December 1694 (London, 1695), 3 Google Scholar, 19.

107 Bates, William, A Sermon Preached upon the much Lamented Death Of our Late Gracious Sovereign Queen Mary. To which is Added the Address of Condoleance To His Majesty By The Dissenting Ministers (London, 1695), 18 Google Scholar, 20, 21, 25; Abbadie, Panegyric, 27; Tate, Mausolaeum, 8.

108 An Oration Of Peter Francius, Upon The Funeral of the Most August Princess Mary II. Queen of Great Britain, France and Ireland. Pronunc'd at Amsterdam, March 5, 1694/5 (London, 1695), 15, 16.

109 Allestree, Charles, The Desire of all Men. A Sermon Preach'd at Daventry in Northamptonshire, March 5, 1694/95 (London, 1695), 1 Google Scholar.

110 Bates, Sermon.

111 A Poetical Essay Devoted to the Glorious Memory of our Late Queen, occasion'd by a Number of Poems and Sermons upon her Death (London, 1695), 12.

112 Abbadie, Panegyric, 22.

113 Peter Gleane, An Elegy on the Death of the Queen (London, licensed 18 February, 1694/95).

114 Burnet, Essay on the Memory of the late Queen, 9-10, 20, 24, 30-31, 32. Burnetwrote an equally appreciative account of Mary's character in his memoirs: Foxcroft, H. C., ed., A Supplement to Burnet's History of My own Time (Oxford, 1902), 194-96Google Scholar.

115 Tate, Mausolaeum, 18-19.

116 Bridgwater, Benjamin, A Poem Upon the Death of Her Late Majesty, Queen Mary, of Blessed Memory. Occasioned By an Epistle to The author, from Mr. J. Tutchin (London, 1695), 7 Google Scholar.

117 Brady, Sermon.

118 Tate, Mausolaeum, 7.

119 Ibid., 13; Great Britain's Lamentation for her Deceased Princess (London, 1695); Yates, Astraea, 29-87, esp. 60, 76.

120 Hawkins, Medallic Illustrations 2: n o , no. 341. “Exoculis. Erepta. Post. Delecta. Venana.”

121 Ibid., 108-09, no. 338.