Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T18:24:32.521Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Mary, did you consent?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 July 2021

Blake Hereth*
Affiliation:
Department of Philosophy, University of Massachusetts, 883 Broadway Street, Dugan Hall 200B, Lowell, MA 01852, USA

Abstract

The Christian and Islamic doctrine of the virgin birth claim God asexually impregnated the Virgin Mary with Jesus, Mary's impregnation was fully consensual (virgin consent), and God never acts immorally (divine goodness). First, I show that God's actions and Mary's background beliefs undermine her consent by virtue of coercive incentives, Mary's comparative powerlessness, and the generation of moral conflicts. Second, I show that God's non-disclosure of certain reasonably relevant facts undermines Mary's informed consent. Third, I show that a recent attempt by Jack Mulder to rescue virgin consent fails. As divine goodness and virgin consent are more central to orthodoxy, Christians and Muslims have powerful reason to reject virgin birth.

Type
Original Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abboud, H (2014) Mary in the Qur'an: A Literary Reading. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alcoff, LM (2018) Rape and Resistance. Medford, MA: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, SA (2008) Of theories of coercion, two axes, and the importance of the coercer. Journal of Moral Philosophy 5, 394422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, SA (2010) The enforcement approach to coercion. Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy 5, 131.Google Scholar
Asirvatham, P (2018) Can coercion be justified when it benefits the poor? The case of commercial surrogacy industry in India. Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics 8, 917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, K (2011) The militant Davidic messiah and violence against Rome: the influence of Pompey on the development of Jewish and Christian messianism. Scripta Judaica Cracoviensa 9, 719.Google Scholar
Bazargan-Forward, S (2014) Moral coercion. Philosopher's Imprint 14, 118.Google Scholar
Cahill, AJ (2014) Rethinking Rape. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Carroll, K and Waldby, C (2012) Informed consent and fresh egg donation for stem cell research: incorporating embodied knowledge into ethical decision-making. Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 9, 2939.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christman, J (1988) Constructing the inner citadel: recent work on the concept of autonomy. Ethics 99, 109124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chwang, E (2009) A defence of subsequent consent. Journal of Social Philosophy 40, 117131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohick, LH (2009) Women in the World of the Earliest Christians: Illuminating Ancient Ways of Life. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.Google Scholar
Coker, M (2014) Common sense about common decency: promoting a new standard for guard-on-inmate sexual abuse under the eighth amendment. Virginia Law Review 100, 437477.Google Scholar
Collins, JH (2013) Review of Matthew V. Novenson, Christ among the Messiahs: Christ Language in Paul and Messiah Language in Ancient Judaism. Journal of Religion 93, 991.Google Scholar
Craig, WL (1991) Talbott's universalism. Religious Studies 27, 297308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crisp, OD (2008) On the ‘Fittingness’ of the virgin birth. Heythrop Journal 49, 197221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dempsey, MM (2021) Coercion, consent, and time. Ethics 131, 345368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dougherty, T (2013) Sex, lies, and consent. Ethics 123, 717744.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douglas, T (2014) Criminal rehabilitation through medical intervention: moral liability and the right to bodily integrity. Journal of Ethics 18, 101122.Google ScholarPubMed
Elton, L (2020) Non-maleficence and the ethics of consent to cancer screening. Journal of Medical Ethics, Online First. https://dx.doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2020-106135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estlund, D (2008) Democratic Authority: A Philosophical Framework. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Frank, N (2016) Against normative consent. Journal of Social Philosophy 47, 470487. https://doi.org/10.1111/josp.12174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frankfurt, H (1988) Coercion and Moral Responsibility. In Frankfurt H (ed.), The Importance of What We Care About. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 2646.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frowe, H (2021) The moral irrelevance of moral coercion. Philosophical Studies, Online First, 118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-021-01609-0.Google Scholar
Garnett, M (2018) Coercion: the wrong and the bad. Ethics 128, 545573. https://doi.org/10.1086/695989.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gauthier, JA (1999) Consent, coercion, and sexual autonomy. In Burgess-Jackson, K (ed.), A Most Detestable Crime: New Philosophical Essays on Rape. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 7191.Google Scholar
Grady, C (2001) Money for research participation: does it jeopardize informed consent? American Journal of Bioethics 1, 4044.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haire, B, Komesaroff, P, Leontini, R and MacIntyre, CR (2018) Raising rates of childhood vaccination: the trade-off between coercion and trust. Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 15, 199209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Held, V (1972) Coercion and coercive offers. In Pennock, JR and Chapman, JW (eds), Nomos XIV: Coercion. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, Inc, pp. 49–62.Google Scholar
Hui, E (2011) Adolescent and parental perceptions of medical decision-making in Hong Kong. Bioethics 25, 516526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins Ichikawa, J (2020) Presupposition and consent. Feminist Philosophy Quarterly 6, 131.Google Scholar
Kishore, RR (2006) Biomedical research and mining of the poor: the need for their exclusion. Science and Engineering Ethics 12, 175183.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klitzman, R (2013) How IRBs view and make decisions about coercion and undue influence: table 1. Journal of Medical Ethics 39, 224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koltonski, D (2013) Normative consent and authority. Journal of Moral Philosophy 10, 255275. https://doi.org/10.1163/174552412X628887.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kongsholm, NCH and Kappel, K (2017) Is consent based on trust morally inferior to consent based on information? Bioethics 31, 432442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korsgaard, C (1986) The right to lie: Kant on dealing with evil. Philosophy and Public Affairs 15, 325349.Google Scholar
Kushner, J (2019) Coercion as a pro tanto wrong: a moderately moralized approach. Journal of Ethics 23, 449471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Largent, E, Grady, C, Miller, FG and Wertheimer, A (2012) Money, coercion, and undue inducement: attitudes about payments to research participants. IRB: Ethics & Human Research 34, 18.Google ScholarPubMed
Liberto, H (2017) Intention and sexual consent. Philosophical Explorations 20, 127141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loader, WRG (2008) Attitudes towards sexuality in Qumram and related literature – and the New Testament. New Testament Studies 54, 338354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorber, J (1989) Choice, gift, or patriarchal bargain? Women's consent to in vitro fertilization in male infertility. Hypatia 4, 2336.Google Scholar
Manson, NC (2013) Normative consent is not consent. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 22, 3344. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0963180112000369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, E (2012) Coercion and integrity. In Timmons, M (ed.), Oxford Studies in Normative Ethics: Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 180205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matey, J (2021) Sexual consent and lying about one's self. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 102, 380400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McConnell, T (1981) Moral blackmail. Ethics 91, 544567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGregor, J (1989) Bargaining advantages and coercion in the market. Philosophy Research Archives 14, 2350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGregor, J (2005) ’Undue inducement’ as coercive offers. American Journal of Bioethics 5, 2425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKinnon, C (1997) Self-respect and the Stepford wives. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 97, 325330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McMillan, J (2014) The kindest cut? Surgical castration, sex offenders and coercive offers. Journal of Medical Ethics 40, 583590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mulder, J (2012) Why more Christians should believe in Mary's immaculate conception. Christian Scholar's Review 41, 117134.Google Scholar
Mulder, J (2014) A response to Chiang and White on the immaculate conception. Christian Scholar's Review 43, 261265.Google Scholar
Mulder, J (2018) A response to Van Kuiken on the immaculate conception. Christian Scholar's Review 47, 281286.Google Scholar
Murphy, M (2017) God's Own Ethics. NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, MJ (1993) Coercion and the hiddenness of God. American Philosophical Quarterly 30, 2738.Google Scholar
Nozick, R (1969) Coercion. In Morgenbesser, S, Suppes, P and White, M (eds), Philosophy, Science, and Method: Essays in Honour of Ernest Nagel. New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. 440472.Google Scholar
O'Neill, O (1991) Which are the offers you can't refuse? In Frey, RG and Morris, C (eds), Violence, Terrorism, and Justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 170195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pawl, T (2011) In Defence of Conciliar Christology. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pawl, T and Timpe, K (2009) Incompatibilism, sin, and free will in heaven. Faith and Philosophy 26, 398419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peeler, A (2020) Mary as mediator. In Panchuk, M and Rea, M (eds), Voices from the Edge: Centring Marginalized Perspectives in Analytic Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 7593.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penland, M (2015) A constitutional paradox: prisoner ‘Consent’ to sexual abuse in prison under the eighth amendment. Law & Inequality 33, 507536.Google Scholar
Potts, M, Verheijde, JL, Rady, MY, and Evans, DW (2010) Normative consent and presumed consent for organ donation: a critique. Journal of Medical Ethics 36, 498499. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.2010.036624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rea, MC (2007) The metaphysics of original sin. In van Inwagen, P and Zimmerman, D (eds), Persons: Human and Divine. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 319356.Google Scholar
Reid, EA (2013) The Prison Rape Elimination Act (PREA) and the importance of litigation in its enforcement: holding guards who rape accountable. Yale Law Journal 122, 20842097.Google Scholar
Reitan, E (2007) A guarantee of universal salvation? Faith and Philosophy 24, 413432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rocha, J (2011) The sexual harassment coercive offer. Journal of Applied Philosophy 28, 203216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryberg, J and Petersen, TS (2014) Surgical castration, coercion, and ethics. Journal of Medical Ethics 40, 593594. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2013-101508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satlow, ML (2006) ‘Rabbinic views on marriage, sexuality, and the family.’ In Katz, SK (ed.), The Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 612626.Google Scholar
Saunders, B (2010) Normative consent and opt-out organ donation. Journal of Medical Ethics 36, 8487. https://doi.org/11.1136/jme.2009.033423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaberg, J (2006) The Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press.Google Scholar
Schiffman, LH (2006) Messianism and apocalypticism in rabbinic texts. In Katz, ST (ed.), The Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 10531072.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, E (2019) The right to bodily integrity and the rehabilitation of offenders through medical interventions: a reply to Thomas Douglas. Neuroethics 12, 97106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12152-016-9277-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skrzypek, JW (2020) Causal time loops and the immaculate conception. Journal of Analytic Theology 8, 321343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Srinivasan, A (2020) Sex as a pedagogical failure. Yale Law Journal 129, 11021146.Google Scholar
Stuckenbruck, LT (2000) The ‘Angels’ and ‘Giants’ of Genesis 6:1–4 in second and third century BCE Jewish interpretation: reflections on the posture of early apocalyptic traditions. Dead Sea Discoveries 7, 354377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuckenbruck, LT (2014) Overlapping ages at Qumran and ‘apocalyptic’ Pauline theology. In Rey, JS (ed.), The Dead Sea Scrolls and Pauline Literature. Leiden: Brill, pp. 309326.Google Scholar
Stuckenbruck, LT (2017) The Myth of Rebellious Angels: Studies in Second Temple Judaism and New Testament Texts. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.Google Scholar
Talbott, T (2020) No hell. In Peterson, ML and VanArragon, RJ (eds), Contemporary Debates in Philosophy of Religion, 2nd Edn. Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell, pp. 379387.Google Scholar
Thompson, MM (2000) The Promise of the Father: Jesus and God in the New Testament. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.Google Scholar
Thomson, JJ (1971) A Defence of Abortion. Philosophy & Public Affairs 1, 4766.Google Scholar
Thurlkill, MF (2007) Chosen Among Women: Mary and Fatima in Medieval Christianity and Shi'ite Islam. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Varden, H (2012) A feminist, Kantian conception of the right to bodily integrity: the cases of abortion and homosexuality. In Crasnow, S and Superson, A (eds), Out of the Shadows: Analytical Feminist Contributions to Traditional Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 3358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walls, J (2011) Why no classical theist, let alone orthodox Christian, should ever be a compatibilist. Philosophica Christi 13, 75104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodard, E (forthcoming) Bad sex and consent. In Boonin, D (ed.), The Palgrave Handbook on Sexual Ethics. Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Yaffe, G (2003) Indoctrination, coercion and freedom of will. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 67, 335356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yap, A (2019) Conceptualizing consent: hermeneutical injustice and epistemic resources. In Sherman, BR and Goguen, S (eds), Overcoming Epistemic Injustice: Social and Psychological Perspectives. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 4962.Google Scholar
Zemyarska, MS (2019) Is it ethical to provide IVF add-ons when there is no evidence of a benefit if a patient requests it? Journal of Medical Ethics 45, 346350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, D (1981) Coercive wage offers. Philosophy and Public Affairs 10, 121145.Google Scholar