1. Dayton, Donald W., Discovering an Evangelical Heritage (New York: Harper and Row, 1976).Google Scholar The chapter on feminism drew heavily on articles Dayton had coauthored with his wife, Lucille Sider.

2. Gundry, Patricia, Woman, Be Free! (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1977).Google Scholar

3. Gundry, Patricia, Neither Slave nor Free: Helping Women Answer the Call to Church Leadership (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1987), 12–15.Google Scholar

4. Scanzoni, Letha Dawson and Setta, Susan, “Women in Evangelical, Holiness, and Pentecostal Traditions,” in Women and Religion in America, Volume 3: 1900-1968, ed. Ruether, Rosemary Radford and Keller, Rosemary Skinner (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1986), 396 n. 25.Google Scholar

5. Hassey, Janette, No Time for Silence: Evangelical Women in Public Ministry around the Turn of the Century (Grand Rapids: Academie-Zondervan, 1986), quote on xiv.Google Scholar

6. Hassey, No Time for Silence, 123,137-43. Other works under consideration in this article include Bendroth, Margaret, “The Search for ‘Women's Role’ in American Evangelicalism, 1930-1980,” in Evangelicalism and Modern America, ed. Marsden, George (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984), 122-34;Google Scholar Bendroth, Margaret, “Women and Missions: Conflict and Changing Roles in the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, 1870-1935,” American Presbyterians 65 (1987): 49–59;Google Scholar Bendroth, Margaret, “Fundamentalism and Femininity,” Evangelical Studies Bulletin 5 (1988): 1–4;Google Scholar Blumhofer, Edith L., “A Confused Legacy: Reflections of Evangelical Attitudes toward Ministering Women in the Past Century,” Fides et Historia 22 (1990): 49–61;Google Scholar Brereton, Virginia lieson and Klein, Christa Ressmeyer, “American Women in Ministry: A History of Protestant Beginning Points,” repr. in Women in American Religion, ed. James, Janet Wilson (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980), 171-90;Google Scholar DeBerg, Betty A., Ungodly Women: Gender and the First Wave of American Fundamentalism (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990).Google Scholar

7. Faragher, John Mack, Women and Men on the Overland Trail (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), 3.Google Scholar

8. Bendroth, “The Search for Women's Role” 123,127,130; Bendroth, “Fundamentalism and Femininity,” 1-2; Blumhofer, “A Confused Legacy,” 55-57; Hassey, No Time for Silence, 137-43; Scanzoni and Setta, “Women in Evangelical, Holiness, and Pentecostal Traditions/’ 229-33; Dayton, Discovering an Evangelical Heritage, 130; DeBerg, Ungodly Women, chap. 4.

9. DeBerg, Ungodly Women, esp. vii-viii, 50-58, chap. 7; Bendroth, “Fundamentalism and Femininity” 1; Scanzoni and Setta, “Women in Evangelical, Holiness, and Pentecostal Traditions,” 231-32.

10. Fischer, David Hackett, Historians'Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), 223.Google Scholar

11. DeBerg, Ungodly Women, 148.

12. Brereton, Virginia Lieson, From Sin to Salvation: Stories of Women's Conversions, 1800 to the Present (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 94–95;Google Scholar Miller, Basil, Praying Hyde: A Man of Prayer (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1943), 127;Google Scholar Henry, Carl F. H., Confessions of a Theologian: An Autobiography (Waco, Tex.: Word, 1986), 82–86;Google Scholar Elliot, Elisabeth, Shadow of the Almighty: The Life and Testament of Jim Elliot (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958), 72;Google Scholar Brereton, Virginia Lieson, Training God's Army: The American Bible School, 1880-1940 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 189 n. 6.Google Scholar

13. Mrs. Howard, (Mary Geraldine Guiness) Taylor, The Triumph of John and Betty Stam (Chicago: Moody Press, 1935), 47,65-68;Google Scholar Pollock, John, Billy Graham: The Authorized Biography (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1966), 26;Google Scholar Elliot, Elisabeth, Passion and Purity (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1984), 53,59–61;Google Scholar Roe, Earl O., ed., Dream Big: The Henrietta Mears Story (Ventura, Calif.: Regal Books, 1990), 80–85.Google Scholar Young men also foreswore marriage in favor of full-time religious service: Miller, Praying Hyde, 127; Elliot, Passion and Purity, 53, 57; Mrs. Howard, (Mary Geraldine Guiness) Taylor, Bordon of Yale (Chicago: Moody Press, 1926), 200–201.Google Scholar

14. Rice, John R., The Home—Courtship, Marriage, and Children: A Bible Manual of Twenty-two Chapters on the Christian Home (Wheaton, El.: Sword of the Lord, 1945), 379-80.Google Scholar

15. Carpenter, Joel A., “Propagating the Faith Once Delivered: The Fundamentalist Missionary Enterprise, 1920-1945,” in Earthen Vessels: American Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 1880-1980, ed. Carpenter, Joel A. and Shenk, Wilbert R. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 117-22;Google Scholar Harris, Barbara J., Beyond Her Sphere: Women and the Professions in American History (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1978), 101-3;Google Scholar Marsden, George M., Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller Seminary and the New Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 86.Google Scholar

16. Brereton, From Sin to Salvation, 95-98.

17. Stull, Ruth, Sand and Stars: Missionary Adventure on the Jungle Trail (Los Angeles: Fleming H. Revell, 1951), 180-83.Google Scholar Ruth StulTs other books include Golden Vessels: Missionary Messages (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1943); Service on the Trail (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Temple, 1941; repr., Philadelphia: Morning Cheer Book Store, 1944); Child of Flame (Wheaton, HI.: Van Kampen, 1955); and Gardens and Gleanings along Life's Way (Chicago: Moody Press, 1958). Stull gave public addresses before mixed audiences at the Winona Lake Bible Conference on numerous occasions, including several at the 1944 and 1950 conferences. Some of these were simultaneously broadcast on WMBI, the radio station operated by 18. Moody Bible Institute. See Winona Lake Bible Conference programs for 1944 and 1950, Grace College Archives, Winona Lake, Indiana.

18. Marsden, Reforming Fundamentalism, 123-24.

19. Carpenter, Joel A., “Fundamentalist Institutions and the Rise of Evangelical Protestantism,” Church History 49 (1980): 66.Google Scholar

20. Trollinger, William Vance, Jr., God's Empire: William Bell Riley and Midwestern Fundamentalism (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1990), 104.Google Scholar

21. Brereton, Training God's Army, vii, 129-32; Getz, Gene A., MBI: The Story of Moody Bible Institute (Chicago: Moody Press, 1969), 111.Google Scholar One of the best pictures of life inside a 1940's Bible institute is Shirley Nelson's novel The Last Year of the War (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978).

22. Carpenter, “Fundamentalist Institutions,” 69.

23. A thorough examination of Winona Lake's Fundamentalism can be found in Mark Edward Sidwell, “The History of the Winona Lake Bible Conference” (Ph.D. diss., Bob Jones University, 1988).

24. Winona Echoes: A Book of Sermons and Addresses Delivered at the … Annual Bible Conference, Winona Lake, Indiana (annual) (Winona Lake, Ind.: Committee on Publication, 1920-1946); Winona Lake Summer Bible Conference Programs, 1925,1936,1944, and 1946, Grace College Archives, Winona Lake, Indiana.

25. For additional material on Helen Sunday, see her autobiography, “Ma” Sunday Still Speaks (Winona Lake, Ind.: Winona Lake Christian Assembly, 1957); and Dorsett, Lyle W., Billy Sunday and the Redemption of Urban America (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 158-60.Google Scholar

26. John Roach Straton's defense of Uldine Utle's public ministry is Does the Bible Forbid Women to Preach and Pray in Public?, printed as a pamphlet in 1926.

27. Edman, V. Raymond, Out of My Life: Lessons Learned from the Scriptures on the Presence of God with His Own, and on the Promises Made by the Most High (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1961), 14;Google Scholar Elliot, Shadow of the Almighty.

28. Paul H. Heidebrecht, “The Educational Legacy of Lois and Mary LeBar” (paper delivered at the conference “Evangelicals, Voluntary Associations, and American Public life,” Wheaton, Illinois, June 13, 1991), 1-23 (pagination refers to first draft).

29. Roe, ed., Dream Big, 132-44.

30. Lettie Burd (Mrs. Charles E.) Cowman address, Winona Echoes, 1942.

31. Hopewell, William J., Jr., The Missionary Emphasis of the General Association of Regular Baptist Churches (Chicago: Regular Baptist Press, 1963), 52–55.Google Scholar

32. Buckingham, Jamie, Daughter of Destiny: Kathryn Kuhlman … Her Story (Plainfield, N.J.: Logos International, 1976), 34–49,56-73,144.Google Scholar

33. Roe, ed., Dream Big, chap. 8, chap. 12.

34. Barlow, Sanna Morrison, Mountains Singing: The Story of Gospel Recordings in the Philippines (Chicago: Moody Press, 1952; repr., 1955), 7.Google Scholar

35. Tucker, Ruth A., From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya: A Biographical History of Christian Missions (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983), 395-98.Google Scholar

36. Moennich, Martha L., World Missions (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1950), 177-78.Google Scholar

37. An excellent example of this can be found in Barlow, Sanna Morrison, Arrows of His Bow (Chicago: Moody Press, 1960), 31–34.Google Scholar

38. Blumhofer, “A Confused Legacy,” 58; DeBerg, Ungodly Women, chap. 2.

39. Scanzoni and Setta, “Women in Evangelical, Holiness, and Pentecostal TradiUons,” 228.

40. Hassey, No Time for Silence, 79-80.

41. Getz,MBJ, 188-92.

42. Trustee list, Wheaton College Archives, Wheaton, Illinois.

43. Getz,MBI 382-84.

44. Blumhofer, “A Confused Legacy,” 56.

45. The entire history of Columbia Bible College, one of the main Fundamentalist bastions of Keswick spirituality, is marked by high levels of male-female cooperation. Robert McQuillan's board of trustees was mostly women, and he hired Charlotte A. Cary from Moody Bible Institute to be his adviser. McQuilkin, Marguerite, Always in Triumph: The Life of Robert C. McQuilkin (Columbia, S.C.: Bible College Bookstore, 1956), 102-31;Google Scholar Marjorie A. Collins, To Know Him and Make Him Known: The Leadership and Philosophy of Columbia Bible College (n.p., n.d.), 1-3.

46. Bendroth, “Fundamentalism and Femininity,” 2; Blumhofer, Edith L., The Assemblies of God: A Chapter in the Story of American Pentecostalism. Volume 1 — To 1941 (Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Publishing House, 1989), 370;Google Scholar Marsden, Reforming Fundamentalism, 123. This conclusion is implied by the construction of two articles in Ruether and Keller, eds., Women and Religion in America: Volume 3. Scanzoni and Setta, “Women in Evangelical, Holiness, and Pentecostal Traditions,” stress the general discrimination women suffered in the evangelical Protestant world; while the following article, Rosemary Skinner Keller, “Tatterns of Laywomen's Leadership in Twentieth-Century Protestantism,” focuses on a few individual mainline female pioneers. Thus, the book as a whole gives the impression that evangelical women languished while mainline women made slow forward progress. A third article in this book, Barbara Brown Zikmund, “Winning Ordination for Women in Mainstream Protestantism,” 339-83, also reinforces this impression.

47. Handy, Robert T., “The American Religious Depression, 1925-1935,” Church History 29 (1960): 3–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

48. Carpenter, “Fundamentalist Institutions.”

49. Computed from Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, “Women's Status in Protestant Churches” Information Service 19 (November 16,1940): 9, table 5.

50. Ibid., 11; Harkness, Georgia, Women in Church and Society: A Historical and Theological Inquiry (Nashville: Abingdon, 1972), 129-30.Google Scholar

51. Ketcham, George F., ed., Yearbook of American Churches (New York: National Council of Churches of Christ, 1951), 239-43.Google Scholar

52. Harkness, Women in Church and Society, 132,220.

53. Furnish, Dorothy Jean, “Women in Religious Education: Pioneers for Women in Professional Ministry,” in Women and Religion in America, ed. Ruether and Keller, 310-38Google Scholar, provides a glimpse of the profession of religious education, including both Fundamentalist and mainline figures. This article is misleading, however, in implying that few Fundamentalist women entered the field (311). Christian education, as it was more commonly called in Fundamentalist circles, was very popular among Fundamentalist women, and nearly every Bible institute and Fundamentalist college offered it as a major. See Heidebrecht, “The Educational Legacy of Lois and Mary LeBar”; and also Getz, MBI, 210-26.

54. Federal Council of the Churches of Christ, “Women's Status in Protestant Churches,” 10-11.

55. Brereton, Virginia Lieson, “United and Slighted: Women as Subordinated Insiders,” in Between the Times: The Travail of the Protestant Establishment in America, 1900-1960, ed. Hutchison, William R. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989);Google Scholar Harkness, Women in Church and Society, 29-31; Marty, Martin E., Modern American Religion, Volume 2: The Noise of Conflict, 1919-1941 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 11,31,40-41,49.Google Scholar

56. Hill, Patricia R., The World Their Household: The American Woman's Foreign Mission Movement and Cultural Transformation, 1870-1920 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985), 167;Google Scholar Bendroth, “The Search for Women's Role,” 125-26.

57. Carpenter, “Propagating the Faith,” 109-10 n. 41. The student populations of America's colleges and universities were only one-third women as late as 1946, which in itself reflects the relative openness of the Bible institutes to women. This college and university enrollment figure was computed from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, Part 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1975), series 700 and 703,383.

58. Brereton and Klein, “American Women in Ministry,” 180-81. 59. Hutchison, William R., Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 176.Google Scholar

60. Hassey, No Time for Silence, 124.

61. Brereton, Training God's Army, 107-12.

62. Bainton, Roland H., Yale and the Ministry: A History of Education for the Christian Ministry at Yale from the Founding in 1701 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957), 262.Google Scholar

63. Handy, Robert T., A History of Union Theological Seminary in New York (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 223;Google Scholar Norwood, Frederick A., Dawn to Midday at Garrett (Evanston, 111.: Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary, 1978), 116, 136, 150-51;Google Scholar Verdesi, Elizabeth Howell, In But Still Out: Women in the Church (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), 128-29.Google Scholar

64. Handy, Union Theological Seminary, 222.

65. Brereton, “United and Slighted,” 145; Harkness, Women in Church and Society, 29-31.

66. Biederman, Gail, “ The Women Have Had Charge of the Church Work Long Enough': The Men and Religion Forward Movement of 1911-1912 and the MascuHnization of Middle-Class Protestantism,” American Quarterly 41 (1989): 432-65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Roman Catholics also set up programs to remasculinize their church in the same era. See Kantowicz, Edward R., Corporation Sole: Cardinal Mundelein and Chicago Catholicism (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1983), chap. 12.Google Scholar

67. Marty, The Noise of Conflict, 373-74; Longfield, Bradley J., The Presbyterian Controversy: Fundamentalists, Modernists, and Moderates (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 95–96.Google Scholar It has been argued that, in addition to squeezing women out of public ministry, male Fundamentalists sought to retain patriarchal control in their marriages. See DeBerg, Ungodly Women, 49-50. The question is beyond the scope of this paper, but the same historiographical problems apply to the existing histories. Only male rhetoric has been studied, and it has been more or less taken as descriptive. No one has studied how Fundamentalist men and women actually behaved in their marriages nor what their marriages were like in comparison to other Americans’ marriages nor what Fundamentalist women thought about their marriages.

68. Linda-Marie Delloff and others, A Century of The Century (1984; 2d ed., Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 83. On the role of The Christian Century, see Meyer, Donald B., The Protestant Search for Political Realism, 1919-1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 52–54.Google Scholar

69. Delloff and others, A Century of The Century, 24; “Winona Yearbook-Program for 1922,” p. 11.

70. “Women Preachers,” The Christian Century 40 (August 16, 1923): 1031; cited in Scanzoni and Setta, “Women in Evangelical, Holiness, and Pentecostal Traditions,” 232.

71. “Churchwomen and the Church,” The Christian Century 54 (May 5, 1937): 576-78, quote on 576.

72. Harkness, Georgia, “Women and the Church,” The Christian Century 54 (June 2,1937): 707-8.Google Scholar

73. “Women in the Church,” The Christian Century 57 (December 11, 1940): 1542-43, quote on 1542.

74. For other examples, see Federal Council of the Churches of Christ, “Women's Status in Protestant Churches,” 5; and Cavert, Inez M., Women in American Church Life: A Study Prepared under the Guidance of a Counseling Committee of Women Representing National Interdenominational Agencies (New York: Friendship Press, 1985), 5,7.Google Scholar

75. For another example of this, see Tucker, Ruth A., “Women in Missons: Reaching Sisters in Heathen Darkness” in Earthen Vessels, ed. Carpenter, and Shenk, 270.Google Scholar

76. Biederman, “ ‘The Women Have Had Charge of the Church Work Long Enough” 439-40.

77. Cott, Nancy F., The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987).Google Scholar

78. Ibid., 132, 217-24. This general picture is confirmed in a later, more systematic study by Van Horn, Susan Householder, Women, Work, and Fertility, 1900-1986 (New York: New York University Press, 1988), 209-11.Google Scholar Prior studies that arrived at similar conclusions via different routes include Harris, Beyond Her Sphere, 133-45; Vicinus, Martha, Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 281-82;Google Scholar Scharf, Lois, To Work and to Wed: Female Employment, Feminism, and the Great Depression (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), chap. 2;Google Scholar Wandersee, Winifred D., Women's Work and Family Values, 1920-1940 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), 103-22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For the story of how urban office work changed in this period from an all-male avenue of upward mobility to a low-status, all-female preserve, see Fine, Lisa M., The Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990).Google Scholar Librarianship is another good example of a typical female profession during this period. It was a low-status, low-paying profession numerically dominated by women. However, men held virtually all the supervisory positions and were usually paid more than women even for doing the same jobs. See Bryan, Alice I., The Public Librarian: A Report to the Public Library Inquiry of the Social Science Research Council (New York: Columbia University Press, 1949), 112-15.Google Scholar

79. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism, 157-58,184. See also Rothman, Sheila M., Woman's Proper Place: A History of Changing Ideals and Practices, 1870 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1978), 5–6,177-218;Google Scholar and Erenberg, Lewis A., Steppin’ Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981), 224-27.Google Scholar

80. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism, 179-97.

81. Ibid., 158-62.

82. Ibid., 282.

83. Beaver, R. Pierce, All Loves Excelling: American Protestant Women in World Mission (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1968), chap. 7.Google Scholar

84. Hill, The World Their Household, 157,159,164,166.

85. Hill, The World Their Household, 174-75. Hill bases her social analysis largely on the work of Sheila Rothman's Woman's Proper Place.

86. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism, 96.

87. Quoted in Hopewell, The Missionary Emphasis, 55. Ruth A. Tucker argues that Peabody was forced out by prejudice but offers no evidence for why Peabody should not be taken at her word. Tucker, “Women in Missions,” 271.

88. Mears also sought out young women for leadership roles. Roe, ed., Dream Big, 197-99.

89. McQuilkin, Always in Triumph, 102-5. Edith Blumhofer remarks on the paucity of evidence indicating that evangelical women aspired to typically male leadership roles. See Blumhofer, “A Confused Legacy,” 58.

90. Cavert, Women in American Church Life, 9; Federal Council of the Churches of Christ, ‘Women's Status in Protestant Churches,” 2, table 1.

91. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism, 353-54 n. 34.

92. Hill, The World Their Household, 164. Quotation is from “Church-women and the Church,” 577.

93. Hatch, Nathan O., “Evangelicalism as a Democratic Movement,” in Evangelicalism and Modern America, ed. Marsden, 71–82;Google Scholar Hatch, Nathan O., The Democratization of American Christianity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 210-19;Google Scholar Williams, Peter W., Popular Religion in America: Symbolic Change and the Modernization Process in Historical Perspective (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980), 159-68;Google Scholar Carpenter, “Fundamentalist Institutions,” 74-75; Michael S. Hamilton, “Wheaton College and the Fundamentalist Network of Voluntary Associations, 1919-1965” (paper delivered at the conference “Evangelicals, Voluntary Associations, and American Public life,” Wheaton, Illinois, June 13,1991).

94. Tucker, “Women in Missions,” 273-76; James and Hefley, Marti, Uncle Cam: The Story of William Cameron Townsend (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1974;Google Scholar repr., Huntington Beach, Calif.: Wydiffe Bible Translators, 1984), 94-95.

95. Blumhofer, “A Confused Legacy,” 58; Blumhofer, The Assemblies of God, 355; Brereton, From Sin to Salvation, 98.

96. William Trollinger, who studied William Bell Rile/s Fundamentalist empire in Minnesota, relates how, in the 1930's, Rile/s magazine printed articles opposing women preachers and, at the very same time, sponsored, publicized, and promoted an evangelistic tour by Alma Reiber and Irene Murray. Beyond the irony that Trollinger noted, this gap between theory and practice suggests the shape of the larger Fundamentalist reality. Trollinger, God's Empire, 106-7.

97. The Billy Graham Center Archives in Wheaton, Illinois, has a substantial and growing collection of taped oral interviews with Fundamentalist missionaries and other religious workers.