¹ Toni Morrison, Song of Solomon (New York: Signet, 1977), 332.

² Toni Morrison, “Rootedness: The Ancestor as Foundation,” in Black Women Writers, 1950–1980, ed. Mari Evans (New York: Doubleday, 1984), 340.

³ Young, Jason R., “All God's Children Had Wings: The Flying African in History, Literature, and Lore,” Journal of Africana Religions 5, no. 1 (2007), 61Google Scholar, 66.

⁴ Timothy Powell, “Summoning Our Ancestors: The Flying African's Story and Its Enduring Legacy,” in African American Life in the Georgia Lowcountry, ed. Philip Morgan (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010), 269.

⁵ Piersen, William D., “White Cannibals, Black Martyrs: Fear, Depression, and Religious Faith as Causes of Suicide among New Slaves,” Journal of Negro History 62, no. 2 (1977): 153CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁶ McDaniel, Lorna, “The Flying Africans: Extent and Strength of the Myth in the Americas,” New West Indian Guide 64, no. 1–2 (1990): 30–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 36.

⁷ Joseph C. Miller, “Retention, Reinvention, and Remembering: Restoring Identities through Enslavement in Africa and under Slavery in Brazil,” in Enslaving Connections: Changing Cultures of Africa and Brazil during the Era of Slavery, ed. José C. Curto and Paul E. Lovejoy (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2004), 96.

⁸ “William Mein to Pierce Butler” (May 24, 1803). Pierce Butler Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

⁹ Federal Writer's Project (FWP) Georgia, Drums and Shadows: Survival Studies among the Georgia Coastal Negroes (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1940), 185.

¹⁰ On the complexities of the Federal Writers’ Project in the Lowcountry, see Melissa L. Cooper, Making Gullah: A History of Sapelo Islanders, Race, and the American Imagination (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 112–50.

¹¹ In Drums and Shadows, twenty-six interviewees refer to flying Africans (17, 18 [twice], 20 [twice], 24, 28, 29, 34, 42, 44, 58 [twice], 79, 81, 108 [twice], 116, 121, 145, 151, 154, 156, 169, 177, 182) and five refer to the use of salt as a form of protection against evil spirits (16, 24, 43, 83, 192). FWP Georgia, Drums and Shadows.

¹² Peter Rutkoff and William B. Scott, Fly Away: The Great African American Cultural Migrations (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 23.

¹³ Cooper, Making Gullah, 168.

¹⁴ FWP Georgia, Drums and Shadows, 150–51.

¹⁵ On Alexander Blue, see Theresa A. Singleton, “Using Written Records in the Archaeological Study of Slavery, an Example from the Butler Island Plantation,” in Text-Aided Archaeology, ed. Barbara J. Little (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1992), 58.

¹⁶ FWP Georgia, Drums and Shadows, 161.

¹⁷ Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 118–19.

¹⁸ Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 117.

¹⁹ Rutkoff and Scott, Fly Away, 24; McDaniel, “The Flying Africans,” 32; Ras Michael Brown, African-Atlantic Cultures and the South Carolina Lowcountry (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 140; Terri Snyder, “Suicide, Slavery, and Memory in North America,” The Journal of American History 97, no. 1 (2010): 39.

²⁰ “William Mein to Pierce Butler” (May 24, 1803), Pierce Butler Papers.

²¹ Elizabeth Donnan (ed.), Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America, 4 vols. (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute, 1930–35), IV:363.

²² Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), 340–41; Daniel C. Littlefield, Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), 116; Robert Olwell, Masters, Slaves, and Subjects: The Culture of Power in the South Carolina Low Country, 1740–1790 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 28.

²³ Margaret Washington Creel, “A Peculiar People”: Slave Religion and Community Culture among the Gullahs (New York: New York University Press, 1988), 37.

²⁴ From 1800 until 1808, the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database identified seventy-three shipments from West-Central Africa, of which forty-six were identified as originating from the Congo River, eleven from North Congo, nine from Cabinda, one from Malembo, and nine from Loango. Slave Voyages, http://www.slavevoyages.org/.

²⁵ Thornton, John, “African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion,” American Historical Review 96 (1991): 1104–05CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brown, African-Atlantic Cultures, 66–67.

²⁶ FWP Georgia, Drums and Shadows, 79.

²⁷ FWP Georgia, Drums and Shadows, 54–55; Lydia Parrish, Slave Songs of the Georgia Sea Islands (New York: Creative Age Press, 1942), 46–48; Lorenzo D. Turner, Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949), 256; John Bennett, The Doctor to the Dead: Grotesque Legends and Folk Tales of Old Charleston (New York: Rinehardt and Company, 1946), 142; Stephen Winick, “Kumbaya: History of an Old Song,” Folklife Today (February 6, 2018): blogs.loc.gov/folklife/2018/02/kumbaya-history-of-an-old-song/.

²⁸ Winifred Kellersberger Vas, The Bantu Speaking Heritage of the United States (Los Angeles: UCLA Center for Afro-American Studies, 1979), 70–71.

²⁹ Powell, “Summoning our Ancestors,” 262; Young, “All God's Children,” 58.

³⁰ FWP Georgia, Drums and Shadows, 66.

³¹ I would like to thank Jean Nsondé, Felix Kaputu, Raissa Ngoma, Afonso João Miguel, Fernando Mbiavanga, Larry Hyman, Tjerk Hagemeijer, and Koen Bostoen for their assistance in analyzing these sources.

³² FWP Georgia, Drums and Shadows, 69.

³³ Paul Brenneker, Sambumbu: Volkskunde van Curaçao, Aruba en Bonaire, 10 vols. (Curaçao: Drukkerij Scherpenheuvel, 1969–75), I:28–32, I:62–63, V:1041, VII:1885, IX:2282, X:2602; Zjozjoli: Gegevens over de volkskunde van Curaçao, Aruba en Bonaire (Curaçao: Publisidat Antiano, 1986), 43, 231, 267.

³⁴ Rose Mary Allen, Di ki manera? A Social History of Afro-Curaçaoans, 1863–1917 (Amsterdam: SWP Publishers, 2007), 69.

³⁵ Miguel Barnet (ed.), Cimarrón: Historia de un esclavo (Madrid: Ediciones Siruela [1966] 1998), 46.

³⁶ Lydia Cabrera, Reglas de Congo, palo monte, mayombe (Miami, FL: Peninsular Printing, 1979), 72–74.

³⁷ Kenneth Bilby and Kia Bunseki Fu-Kiau, Kumina: A Kongo-Based Tradition in the New World (Brussels: ASDOC-Studies, 1983), 22.

³⁸ Monica Schuler, Alas, Alas, Kongo: A Social History of Indentured African Immigration into Jamaica, 1841–1865 (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), 74–75.

³⁹ Monica Schuler, “Liberated Central Africans in Nineteenth-Century Guyana,” in Central Africans and Cultural Transformation in the American Diaspora, ed. Linda M. Heywood (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 343.

⁴⁰ Paul Güssfeldt, Julias Falkenstein, and Eduard Pechüel-Loesche, Die Loango-Expedition ausgesandt von der Deutschen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung Aequatorial-Africas, 1873–1876: Ein Reisewerk in drei Abtheilungen (Leipzig: P. Frohberg, 1879–1907), III:18, 102, 301.

⁴¹ Güssfeldt, Falkenstein, and Pechüel-Loesche, Die Loango-Expedition, III:104.

⁴² Güssfeldt, Falkenstein, and Pechüel-Loesche, Die Loango-Expedition, III:302, 310, 318–19, 328.

⁴³ Bilby and Fu-Kiau, Kumina, 43–44.

⁴⁴ See Anne Hilton, The Kingdom of the Kongo (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1985), 98; Sylvia R. Frey and Betty Wood, Come Shouting to Zion: African American Protestantism in the American South and British Caribbean to 1830 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 18; Luc De Heusch, Le roi de Kongo et les monstres sacrés (Paris: Gallimard, 2000), 84.

⁴⁵ A. H. de Oliveira Marques, Daily Life in Portugal in the Late Middle Ages, ed. S. S. Wyatt (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971), 206; João Francisco Marques, Metáforas do sal na oratória sacra do seiscentismo português (Porto: Instituto de História Moderna da Universidade do Porto, 2005), 354.

⁴⁶ Wyatt MacGaffey, “The West in Congolese Experience,” in Africa and the West: Intellectual Responses to European Culture, ed. Philip D. Curtin (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1972), 57.

⁴⁷ Alonso de Sandoval, Un tratado sobre la esclavitud, ed. Enriqueta Vila Vilar (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, [1647] 1987), 383.

⁴⁸ John Thornton, The Kongolese Saint Anthony: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684–1706 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 17.

⁴⁹ António do Couto, Gentio de Angola sufficientemente instruido nos mysterios de nossa sancta fé. Obra posthuma composta pello Padre Francisco Pacconio (Lisbon: D. Lopes Rosa, 1662), 65.

⁵⁰ António de Oliveira de Cadornega, História Geral das Guerras Angolanas, ed. José Matias Delgado, 3 vols. (Lisbon: Agência-Geral do Ultramar, [1680] 1972), I:415.

⁵¹ Girolamo Merolla da Sorrento, Breve, e succinta relazione del viaggio nel regno di Congo nell'Africa meridionale (Napoli: s.n., 1726), 413.

⁵² For Teruel, see Mateo de Anguiano, ed., Misiones capuchinas en África, 2 vols. (Madrid: Instituto Santo Toribio de Mogrevejo, 1950–57), I:218; Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi, Istorica descrizione de’ tre’ regni Congo, Matamba et Angola (Bologna: Per Giacomo Monti, 1687), 426, 682.

⁵³ See Louis Jadin (ed.), “Le clergé séculier et les capucins du Congo et d'Angola aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles: Conflits de juridiction, 1700–1726,” Bulletin de l'Institut Historique Belge de Rome XXXVI (1964): 237.

⁵⁴ “Sumário de testemunhas pelo Padre Jesuíta Jorge Pereira” (1596–98). In Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo, Lisbon, Inquisição de Lisboa, Livro 776, fl. 15–15v.

⁵⁵ Luca da Caltanissetta, Diaire Congolais (1690–1701), ed. François Bontick (Louvain: Editions Nauwelaerts, 1970), 79, 111–12.

⁵⁶ “Informazione sul regno del Congo di Fra Raimondo da Dicomano” (1798), in Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino, Lisbon, Diversos, Caixa 823, Sala 12.

⁵⁷ Merolla da Sorrento, Breve, e succinta relazione, 413.

⁵⁸ Jean Cuvelier, ed., Documents sur une mission française au Kakongo, 1766–1776 (Brussels: Institut Royal Colonial Belge, 1953), 127; Liévin-Bonaventure Proyart, ed., Histoire de Loango, Kakongo, et autres royaumes d'Afrique: rédigée d'après les mémoires des préfets apostoliques de la mission françoise (Paris: C. P. Berton, 1776), 317, 330–33.

⁵⁹ For more on the religious history of Loango, see “Carta de Frei Diogo da Encarnação” (September 27, 1584); “Relação dos Carmelitos descalços” (1584); “Carta Anua da Missão de Angola” (1603); “Relação do Governador Fernão de Sousa (1624–1630)”; “Relação de Fernão de Sousa a El-Rei (23-2-1632),” in Monumenta missionária Africana, ed. António Brásio, 11 vols. (Lisbon: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1852–1871), III:279–80, IV:393–415, V:82–83, VII:640–54, VIII:131–55; Cavazzi, Istorica descrizione de’ tre’ regni, 564–70; Merolla da Sorrento, Breve, e succinta relazione, 183–85; Phyllis M. Martin, The External Trade of the Loango Coast, 1576–1870: The Effects of Changing Commercial Relations on the Vili Kingdom of Loango (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1972), 33–41; De Heusch, Le roi de Kongo, 39–41, 68; Phyllis M. Martin, “The Kingdom of Loango,” in Kongo: Power and Majesty, ed. Alisa Lagamma (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2015), 33–43.

⁶⁰ José Emílio de Santos e Silva, Esboço histórico do Congo e Loango nos tempos modernos; contendo uma resenha dos costumes e vocabulário dos indígenas de Cabinda (Lisbon: Typographia Mottos Moreira, 1888), 66.

⁶¹ For more on the early European presence in Loango and the slave trade, see David Birmingham, Trade and Conflict in Angola: The Mbundu and Their Neighbours under the Influence of the Portuguese, 1483–1790 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1966), 37–39, 157; Martin, The External Trade of the Loango Coast, 42–72, 122–23; Robert W. Harms, River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500–1891 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981), 27–28; Annie Merlet, Autour du Loango (XIVe–XIXe siècle): Histoire des peoples du sud-ouest du Gabon au temps du Royaume de Loango et du ‘Congo Français’ (Paris: SEPIA, 1991), 9, 57; Joseph C. Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730–1830 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998), 35, 200; Arsène-Francoeur Nganga, La traite négrière sur la Baie de Loango pour la colonie du Suriname (Évry: Cesbc Presses, 2016), 57.

⁶² For more on the origins of enslaved Africans shipped from Loango Bay, see Proyart, Histoire de Loango, 63; Martin, The External Trade of the Loango Coast, 122–23; Miller, Way of Death, 35, 200; Martin, “The Kingdom of Loango,” 75.

⁶³ Alfred Dewar, ed., The Voyages and Travels of Captain Nathaniel Uring (London: Cassell, [1726] 1928), 37–38.

⁶⁴ Christina Frances Mobley, “The Kongolese Atlantic: Central African Slavery and Culture from Mayombe to Haiti,” (PhD diss., Duke University, 2015), 20.

⁶⁵ John Gabriel Stedman, Narrative of a Five Years’ Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam, ed. Richard and Sally Price (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, [1796] 1988), 175.

⁶⁶ Richard Price, Travels with Tooy: History, Memory, and the African American Imagination (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 366.

⁶⁷ Stedman, Narrative, 292, 535. Compare the muteta in Stedman with Güssfeldt, Falkenstein, and Pechüel-Loesche, Die Loango-Expedition, II:21.

⁶⁸ Price, Travels with Tooy, 109, 324.

⁶⁹ Thornton, The Kongolese Saint Anthony, 17; John Thornton, “The Kingdom of Kongo,” in Kongo: Power and Majesty, ed. Alisa Lagamma (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2015), 92.

⁷⁰ Cuvelier, Documents sur une mission française, 127.

⁷¹ For more on the relationship between the Bavili and Kongolese, see R. E. Dennett, Notes on the Folklore of the Fjort, French Congo (Nendeln: Folk-Lore Society, 1967), xiv; Birmingham, Trade and Conflict in Angola, 9; Martin, The External Trade of the Loango Coast, 3–42.

⁷² Martin, The External Trade of the Loango Coast, 70.

⁷³ Thornton, John, “Cannibals, Witches, and Slave Traders in the Atlantic World,” The William and Mary Quarterly 60, no. 2 (2003): 282CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁴ Cadornega, História Geral das Guerras Angolanas, II:271.

⁷⁵ Heywood, Linda, “Slavery and Its Transformation in the Kingdom of Kongo, 1491–1800,” The Journal of African History 50, no. 1 (2009): 20–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁷⁷ Jon S. Sensbach, Rebecca's Revival: Creating Black Christianity in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 84.

⁷⁸ Médéric L. E. Moreau de Saint-Méry, Description topographique physique, civile, politique et historique de la partie Française de l'isle Saint-Domingue, 3 vols., ed. Marcel Dorigny (Saint-Denis: Société française d'histoire d'outre-mer, [1797] 2004), I:53–55.

⁷⁹ Han Jordaan, Slavernij & vrijheid op Curaçao. De dynamiek van een achttiende-eeuws Atlantisch handelsknooppunt (Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2013), 150–60, 181.

⁸⁰ Linda Heywood and John Thornton, “Central-African Leadership and the Appropriation of European Culture,” in The Atlantic World and Virginia, 1550–1624, ed. Peter C. Mancall (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 224.

⁸¹ Sandoval, Un tratado sobre la esclavitud, 129, 441.

⁸² Fernando Ortiz Fernández, Los bailes y el teatro de los negros en el folklore de Cuba (Havana: Editorial Letras Cubanans, 1985), 288, 439–41; Matt D. Childs, The 1812 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the Struggle against Atlantic Slavery (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 240; Thornton, John, “The Kingdom of Kongo and Palo Mayombe: Reflections on an African-American Religion,” Slavery and Abolition 37, no. 1 (2016): 8–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁸⁴ Christian Georg Andreas Oldendorp, Historie der caribischen Inseln Sanct Thomas, Sanct Crux und Sanct Jan, insbesondere der dasigen Neger und der Mission der evangelischen Brüder unter densleben, ed. Gudrun Meier, Stephan Palmié, Peter Stein, and Horst Ulbricht, 2 vols. (Berlin: VWB, [1770] 2000), I:447.

⁸⁵ Paul Brenneker, Mil palabra poko usa/duizend vreemde woorden (Korsow: Montero, 1978), 61.

⁸⁶ Paul Brenneker, Zjozjoli: Gegevens over de volkskunde van Curaçao, Aruba en Bonaire (Curaçao: Publisidat Antiano, 1986), 256.

⁸⁷ Nicolaas Van Meeteren, Volkskunde op Curaçao (Willemstad: Scherpenheuvel, 1947), 34; H. Hoetink, Het patroon van de oude Curaçaose samenleving. Een sociologische studie (Aruba: De Wit, 1959), 70; Peter Hoefnagels and Shon W. Hoogenbergen, Antilliaans spreekwoordenboek (Curaçao: De Curaçaosche Courant, 1980), 81. This negative reputation extended to nearby Venezuela, where enslaved Africans unable to express themselves clearly in Spanish used to be called “Luangos.” See Juan Liscano, Folklore y cultura (Caracas: Avila Gráfica, 1950), 78.

⁸⁸ Brenneker, Sambumbu, III:525.

⁸⁹ H. R. Wullschläger, Deutsch-Negerenglisches Wörterbuch (Löbau: J. A. Duroldt, 1856), 323; “‘Annotatiën op de Surinaamsche Beschrijvinge van Ao 1718’, latere redactie van de door Jan Nepveu in 1765–1766 vervaardigde tekst t.b.v. een geactualiseerde heruitgave van het werk van Herlein uit 1718” (ca. 1771). In Stadsarchief Gemeente Amsterdam, Access No. 231.

⁹⁰ Allen, Di ki manera?, 96.

⁹¹ Brenneker, Sambumbu, I:206, I:243, I:253, I:255, VI:1372–73, V:1112, V:1158, V:1257.

⁹² Melville J. Herskovits, Life in a Haitian Valley (New York: Knopf, 1937), 93.

⁹³ Zora Neale Hurston, Tell My Horse: Voodoo and Life in Haiti and Jamaica (New York: Harper and Row, [1938] 1990), 45–47.

⁹⁴ Jean-Baptiste Du Tertre, Histoire générale des Antilles habitées par les françois, 4 vols. (Paris: Thomas Iolly, 1667–71), II:526–28; Pierre-François-Xavier de Charlevoix, Histoire de l'Isle Espagnole ou de St. Domingue: écrite particulièrement sur des mémoires manuscrits du P. Jean-Baptiste Le Pers, 2 vols. (Paris: Chez François Barois, 1731), II:502.

⁹⁵ Barnet, Cimarrón, 46, 129.

⁹⁶ Vincent Brown, The Reaper's Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 223.

⁹⁷ See Sue Peabody, “A Dangerous Zeal: Catholic Missions to Slaves in the French Antilles, 1635–1800,” French Historical Studies 25, no. 1 (2002): 67.

⁹⁸ Médéric L. E. Moreau de Saint–Méry, Loix et constitutions des colonies franc̜oises de l'Amérique sous le vent, 6 vols. (Paris: Chez l'auteur, 1784–90), IV:352–55.

⁹⁹ James M. Phillippo, Jamaica: Its Past and Present State (Philadelphia: J. M. Campbell, 1843), 103–104.

¹⁰⁰ Oldendorp, Historie der caribischen Inseln, I:647, 741–42.

¹⁰¹ Sensbach, Rebecca's Revival, 92–93.

¹⁰² Maureen Warner-Lewis, Central Africa in the Caribbean: Transcending Time, Transforming Cultures (Barbados: University of the West Indies Press, 2003), 186.

¹⁰³ Paul Brenneker, Curaçaoensia: Folkloristische aantekeningen over Curaçao (Curaçao: St. Augustinus, 1961), 63.

¹⁰⁴ Armando Lampe, “Christianity and Slavery in the Dutch Caribbean,” in Christianity in the Caribbean: Essays on Church History, ed. Armando Lampe (Barbados: University of the West Indies Press, 2001), 131.

¹⁰⁵ Linda M. Rupert, Creolization and Contraband: Curaçao in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 2012), 179.

¹⁰⁶ Brenneker, Curaçaoensia, 17; Brenneker, Sambumbu, I:105, V:1091, V:1106–107, X:2487–89; Hoefnagels and Hoogenbergen, Antilliaans spreekwoordenboek, 76; Eva Abraham, Van je familie moet je het hebben: Curaçaose verwantschappen (Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2013), 233.

¹⁰⁷ Brenneker, Sambumbu, V:2196.

¹⁰⁸ John M. Lipski, The Speech of the Negros Congos of Panama (Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1989), 67–114; Ronald R. Smith, “Arroz Colorao: Los Congos of Panama,” in Music and Black Ethnicity: The Caribbean and South America, ed. Gerard H. Béhague (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1992), 239–66; Judith Bettelheim, “Carnaval of Los Congos of Portobelo, Panama: Feathered Men and Queens,” in African Diasporas in the New and Old Worlds: Consciousness and Imagination, ed. Geneviève Fabre and Klaus Benesch (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2004), 287–309; Renee Alexander Craft, When the Devil Knocks: The Congo Tradition and the Politics of Blackness in Twentieth-Century Panama (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2015), 56–107.

¹⁰⁹ James H. Sweet, Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-Portuguese World, 1441–1770 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 174. See also Schuler, Alas, Alas, Kongo, 96; “Liberated Central Africans,” 350.

¹¹⁰ John Thornton, “Portuguese-African Relations, 1500–1750,” in Encompassing the Globe: Portugal and the World in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, ed. Jay A. Levenson (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2007), 63.

¹¹¹ de Mello e Souza, Marina, “Reis do Congo no Brasil. Séculos XVIII e XIX,” Revista de História 152, no. 1 (2005): 83Google Scholar.

¹¹² Moore, Ruby Andrews, “Superstitions from Georgia,” The Journal of American Folklore 7, no. 27 (1894): 305–306CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹³ Wood, Black Majority, 332–41.

¹¹⁴ Thornton, John, “African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion,” American Historical Review 96 (1991): 1103–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁵ A. S. Salley, ed., Warrants for Lands in South Carolina, 1672–1711, 3 vols. (Columbia: Historical Commission of South Carolina, 1910–15), I:112, II:44, II:59, II:63, II:79, II:80, II:83, III:176, III:187–188, III:212.

¹¹⁶ Annette Laing, “‘Heathens and Infidels’? African Christianization and Anglicanism in the South Carolina Low Country, 1700–1750,” Religion and American Culture 12, no. 2 (2002): 217.

¹¹⁷ Mark M. Smith, ed., Stono: Documenting and Interpreting a Southern Slave Revolt (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2005), 14.

¹¹⁸ Jane Landers, “Free and Slave,” in The New History of Florida, ed. by Michael Gannon (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996), 172; Black Society in Spanish Florida (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 32, 48, 110, 113; “The African Landscape of Seventeenth-Century Cartagena and Its Hinterland,” in The Black Urban Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade, ed. Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, Matt D. Childs, and James Sidbury (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013), 227–41.

¹¹⁹ Francis Le Jau, The Carolina Chronicle of Dr. Francis Le Jau 1706–1717, ed. Frank J. Klingberg (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956), 69, 77, 102, 120, 133. See also Laing, “‘Heathens and Infidels’?,” 197–228.

¹²⁰ “James Gignilliat to SPG” (May 28, 1710), in Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Letter Books, Thomas Cooper Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia, Series A 5/119.

¹²¹ James Barclay, The Voyages and Travels of James Barclay, Containing Many Surprising Adventures, and Interesting Narratives (London: priv. print, 1777), 26.

¹²² Erskine Clarke, “‘They Shun the Scrutiny of White Men’: Reports on Religion from the Georgia Lowcountry and West Africa, 1834–1850,” in African American Life in the Georgia Lowcountry: The Atlantic World and the Gullah Geechee, ed. Philip Morgan (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010), 132.

¹²³ Julia Peterkin, Roll, Jordan, Roll (New York: Robert O. Ballou, 1933), 205.

¹²⁴ Mason Crum, Gullah: Negro Life in the Carolina Sea Islands (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1949), 97.

¹²⁵ Richard C. Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South 1820–1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), 71.

¹²⁶ Creel, “A Peculiar People”, 2, 231.

¹²⁷ Jason R. Young, Rituals of Resistance: African Atlantic Religion in Kongo and the Lowcountry South in the Era of Slavery (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007), 78–80; Brown, African-Atlantic Cultures, 199, 218.

¹²⁸ Young, Rituals of Resistance, 45; Brown, Ras Michael, “The Immersion of Catholic Christianity in Kalunga,” Journal of Africana Religions 2, no. 2 (2014): 246–55Google Scholar.

¹²⁹ Young, Rituals of Resistance, 80, 101.

¹³⁰ George F. Brooks, “The Observance of All Souls’ Day in the Guinea-Bissau Region: A Christian Holy Day, An African Harvest Festival, an African New Year's Celebration, or All of the Above(?),” History in Africa 11 (1984): 10.

¹³¹ Marques, Daily Life in Portugal, 225–26; Maria Ângela Beirante, Territórios do sagrado: Crenças e comportamentos na Idade Média em Portugal (Lisbon: Colibri, 2011), 32–76; Hermínia Vasconcelos Vilar, A vivência da morte no Portugal medieval: A Estremadura portuguesa, 1300 a 1500 (Redondo: Patrimónia, 1995), 180–91.

¹³² “Interrogatória de statu regni congensis fact ulissipone” (1595), in Brásio, Monumenta missionária, III:500–504.

¹³³ “Processo canónico do Bispo do Congo” (December 19, 1603–January 31, 1604); “Relatório da Diocesa do Congo e Angola” (December 19, 1609); “Terceira missão dos Dominicanos ao Reino do Congo” (1610), in Brásio, Monumenta missionária, V:64–80, 524–32, 605–14; Anguiano, Misiones capuchinas, I:109–11, 115, 349; John Thornton, “The Development of an African Catholic Church in the Kingdom of Kongo, 1491–1750,” The Journal of African History 25, no. 2 (1984): 163–67; Richard Gray, Black Christians and White Missionaries (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), 34–56; Cécile Fromont, The Art of Conversion: Christian Visual Culture in the Kingdom of Kongo (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 202–206.

¹³⁴ Louis Jadin, ed., “Le Congo et la secte des Antoniens: Restauration du Royaume sous Pedro IV et la ‘Saint Antoine’ congolaise (1694–1718),” Bulletin de l'Institut Historique Belge de Rome XXXII (1961): 454–59, 482–83.

¹³⁵ Henry B. Whipple, Bishop's Whipple's Southern Diary, 1843–1844 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1937), 51.

¹³⁶ FWP Georgia, Drums and Shadows, 70; Nick Lindsay, ed., An Oral History of Edisto Island: Sam Gadsden Tells the Story (Goshen, IN: Pinchpenny Press, 1975), 72. For king elections in Kongolese brotherhoods, see Jorge Fonseca, Religião e liberdade: Os Negros nas irmandades e confrarias portuguesas (V.N. Famalicão: Humus, 2016), 107; Elizabeth W. Kiddy, “Who Is the King of Congo? A New Look at African and Afro-Brazilian Kings in Brazil,” in Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora, ed. Linda M. Heywood (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 153–82.

¹³⁷ Thomas D. Turpin, “May and New River Mission, S.C. Con., to the Blacks,” Christian Advocate and Journal VIII–IX (October 25, 1833): 34.

¹³⁸ Chlotilde R. Martin, “Negro Burial Societies,” Folder D-4–27B, Works Progress Administration, Federal Writers’ Project (FWP), Manuscript Collection, South Carolina Library (SCL), University of South Carolina.

¹³⁹ Thomas D. Howard, “Before and After Emancipation,” Unitarian Review (August 1888), 142–43; William Francis Allen, Slave Songs of the United States (New York, A. Simpson and Co., 1867), 412.

¹⁴⁰ John M. Giggie, “For God and Lodge: Black Fraternal Orders and the Evolution of African American Religion in the Postbellum South,” in The Struggle for Equality: Essays on Sectional Conflict, the Civil War, and the Long Reconstruction, ed. Orville Vernon Burton, Jerald Podair, and Jennifer L. Weber (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2011), 200.

¹⁴¹ Mildred Hare, “Burial Societies and Lodges,” Folder S-260-264-N, FWP-SCL.

¹⁴² Peterkin, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 205–10.

¹⁴³ Merolla da Sorrento, Breve, e succinta relazione, 216, 218, 229.

¹⁴⁴ Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, [1977] 2007), 445.

¹⁴⁵ FWP Georgia, Drums and Shadows, 106–08.