1. See, for instance, Pragai, Michael J., Faith and Fulfillment: Christians and the Return to the Promised Land (London: Vallentine, Mitchell, 1985)Google Scholar; and Ariel, Yaakov S., On Behalf of Israel: American Fundamentalist Attitudes towards the Jews, Judaism, and Zionism, 1865-1945 (Brooklyn: Carlson Publishing Co., 1991).Google Scholar This last work suffers from the author's failure to define “fundamentalism” and place it within American religious culture.

2. Bock, Darrell L., “Charting Dispensationalism,” Christianity Today 38 (September 12, 1994): 26.Google Scholar Graham himself, perhaps the most influential American evangelist since Charles Grandison Finney, consistently dwells on the importance of the Jewish State to Christians.

3. On the role of Hebraic studies in philo-Semitism, see Clouse, R. G., “The Latter-Day Glory,” in Puritans, the Millennium and the Future of Israel: Puritan Eschatology, ed. Toon, Peter (Cambridge and London: James Clarke & Co., Ltd., 1970)Google Scholar; see also Katz, David S., Philo-Semitism and the Read-mission of the Jews to England, 1603-1655 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982).Google Scholar These Puritan scholars especially dwelt on Ezekiel 23, the famous “Valley of the dry bones” prophecy, as foreseeing the resurrection of the Jewish State in Palestine. It is important to note the constant close connection between philological studies and philo-Semitism, which remains a constant down to our own time when it is stereotyped as biblical “literalism.” To cite just one of many instances, one of the leading advocates of the restoration of Israel in antebellum America, Eleazar Lord, published three volumes on the theory of language.

4. An older exponent of the belief that millenarianism can be “explained” by social disturbance is Eric J. Hobsbawm's classic work Primitive Rebels: Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movements in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1959). The same basic theme—disciples of apocalypticism as marginalized, violent men—can be found in another classic, Cohn, Norman, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Messianism in Medieval and Reformation Europe and Its Bearing on Modern Totalitarian Movements (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961).Google Scholar

5. “Because we assume that millenarianism is abnormal we expect to find a spirit of anxiety among millenarians… . But what if our original premise is wrong? What if millenarianism meant not alienation from the spirit of the age but a total involvement with it?” This penetrating question is posed in Lamont, William M., Godly Rule: Politics and Religion, 1603-60 (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1969), 13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Such an attitude is a corrective to the casual historiographical explanation of millenarianism as a sort of neurosis. See also Lamont, William M., Richard Baxter and the Millennium: Protestant Imperialism and the English Revolution (London: Croom Helm, 1979)Google Scholar, in which he argues that this Puritan divine—who expected the conversion of the Jews as incipient to the millennium (41, 56)—lay in the mainstream of contemporary Puritan thought.

6. Solt, Leo F., “The Fifth Monarchy Men: Politics and the Millennium,” Church History 30 (September 1961): 314-24CrossRefGoogle Scholar, is a pioneer work on this Puritan eschatological awareness. See also Capp, B. S., The Fifth Monarchy Men: A Study in Seventeenth-Century Millenarianism (London: Faber, 1972)Google Scholar; and Rogers, P. G., The Fifth Monarchy Men (London: Oxford University Press, 1966).Google Scholar

7. “In revolutionary England … where Antichrist was already believed to have come [Rome], the conversion of the Jews seemed an essential preliminary to the next item on the agenda—the fall of Antichrist and the millennium.” Hill, Christopher, Antichrist in Seventeenth-Century England (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 176.Google Scholar See also Scult, Mel, Millennial Expectations and Jewish Liberties: A Study of Efforts to Convert the Jews in Britain, Up to the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978)Google Scholar; the collection of essays in Popkin, Richard H., ed., Millenarianism and Messianism in English Literature and Thought, 1650-1800 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1988)Google Scholar; Toon, ed., Puritans, the Millennium, and the Future of Israel; and Mede, Joseph, The Key of the Revelation, Searched and Demonstrated out of the Natural and Proper Characters of the Vision (London, 1643).Google Scholar

8. See Maclear, J. F., “New England and the Fifth Monarchy: The Quest for the Millennium in Early American Puritanism,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d. Ser., 32 (April 1975): 223–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar “Puritans became convinced that the native Americans were descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel whose conversion would immediately precede Christ's second Coming,” writes Gura, Philip F. in A Glimpse of Sion's Glory: Puritan Radicalism in New England, 1620-1660 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1984), 133.Google Scholar See also Aletha Joy Bourne Gilsdorf, “The Puritan Apocalypse: New England Eschatology in the Seventeenth Century” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1965), esp. 20-99.

9. Newton, Thomas, A Dissertation on the Prophecies, 2 vols. (New York: J. & T. Swords & T. Allen, 1794).Google Scholar This imprint was from the tenth European edition of a work originally published in 1754. The number of its European editions, as well as its republication in America (where it circulated widely), indicates how eschatology interested contemporaries. Samuel Johnson called the study “Tom's great work: but how far it was great and how much of it Tom's, was another question.” Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. “Newton, Thomas.”

10. Garrett, Clark, Respectable Folly: Millenarians and the French Revolution in France and England (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975)Google Scholar, notes that “the Coming of the French Revolution had the effect of giving awesome reality to what had before been only speculation” (226). There has been a tendency in historiography to concentrate on the Johanna Southcotts of that turbulent era. This is true also of Harrison, J. F. C., The Second Coming: Popular Millenarianism, 1780-1850 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1979).Google Scholar A useful corrective is an older work, Sandeen, Ernest R., The Roots of Fundamentalism: British and American Millenarianism, 1800-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970)Google Scholar, which locates the center of English millenarianism in the scholarly and propertied classes. Thompson, E. P., The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963)Google Scholar, is a classic work that briefly explores chiliasm among common English laborers of that era. See also Fruchman, Jack Jr., “The Apocalyptic Politics of Richard Price and Joseph Priestly: A Study in Late Eighteenth-Century English Republican Millennialism,” in Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 73, pt. 4 (1983): 1–125 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Van Den Berg, J., “Priestly, the Jews, and the Millennium,” in Sceptics, Millenarians and Jews, ed. Datz, David S. and Israel, Jonathan I. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1990), 256-74.Google Scholar

11. “On the return of the JEWS to their own Land in the Millennium,” The Theological Magazine and Synopsis of Modern Religious Sentiment 2 (January and February 1797): 176.

12. Sandeen, The Roots of Fundamentalism. See also Tuveson, Ernest, Redeemer Nation: The Idea of America's Millennial Role (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968)Google Scholar; Davidson, James West, The Logic of Millennial Thought: Eighteenth-Century New England (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977)Google Scholar, which deals with the colonial period; and Weber, Timothy P., Living in the Shadow of the Second Coming: American Premillennialism: 1875-1925 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).Google Scholar Scattered partial treatments of the subject may also be found in Johnson, Paul E., A Shopkeeper's Millennium: Society and Revivals in Rochester, New York, 1815-1837 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1979)Google Scholar; and Heimert, Alan, Religion and the American Mind: From the Great Awakening to the Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966).Google Scholar There is, of course, a substantial literature on the Millerites: e.g., Doan, Ruth Alden, The Miller Heresy, Millennialism and American Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987)Google Scholar; and Numbers, Ronald L. and Butler, Jonathan M., The Disappointed: Millerism and Millenarianism in the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987).Google Scholar There is, however, no work that attempts a comprehensive interpretation that would connect such varied nineteenth-century phenomena as the Millerites, Owenism, the Shakers, Alexander Campbell, postmillennialism, premillennialism, and a host of other eschatological or utopian beliefs. Such a historical theory would be most welcome.

13. Quoted in Smith, Page, John Adams, 2 vols. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1962), 2:1076.Google Scholar

14. Smith, Elias, The Whole World Governed By A Jew (Exeter, N.H.: Henry Ranlet, 1805), 27, 58.Google Scholar

15. See Hatch, Nathan O., “The Origins of Civil Millennialism in America: New England Clergymen, War with France, and the Revolution,” William and Mary Quarterly 31 (July 1974): 407-30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Hatch writes here of “civil millennialism”: “In a subtle but profound shift in emphasis the religious values that traditionally defined the ultimate goal of apocalyptic hope—the conversion of all nations to Christianity—became diluted with, and often subordinate to, the commitment to America as a new seat of liberty” (409). See also Hatch, Nathan O., The Democratization of American Christianity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989)Google Scholar; Davidson, The Logic of Millennial Thought; and Stein, Stephen J., “An Apocalyptic Rationale for the American Revolution,” Early American Literature 9 (Winter 1975): 211-25.Google Scholar This emphasis on the political (i.e., Revolutionary) sources of American millennialism represents a shift from an earlier generation of scholars who traced it to the Great Awakening (although Davidson deals at length with this tradition). For this earlier viewpoint, see, for example, Alan Heimert, Religion and the American Mind; and Goen, C. C., “Jonathan Edwards: A New Departure in Eschatology,” Church History 28 (March 1959): 25–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Block, Ruth, Visionary Republic: Millennial Themes in American Thought, 1756-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), esp. 75–93 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, explores millennialism as an expression of a form of democratic utopianism during the post-revolutionary era. She stresses that, during the 1790's, premillennialism appealed largely to an “untutored public” (143). However true this may be, it is certainly not true by the 1830's when, as is shown here, premillennialism appealed widely to antebellum scholars such as John Lillie and Bishops Tyng, Henshaw, and McIllvaine of the Episcopal Church, among many others.

16. The millennium is, of course, the thousand years mentioned in Revelation 20. It has been interpreted since the dawn of Christianity as a sanctified era promised by prophecy. A key issue has been whether Christ's Second Advent will occur before the millennium (premillennialism) or after it (postmillennialism). Premillennialism is generally apocalyptic and anticipates a colossal and bloody confrontation at the end of history. Postmillennialism is the religious version of the Idea of Progress (or vice versa) and holds that the reforming efforts of Christians acting in history will produce a sanctified society without overt divine intervention.

17. Israel's Advocate 1 (June 1823): 82. Also, for instance, “We shall offend the great Redeemer unless we assign to the ancient Jews their proper rank in the kingdom; and unless we acknowledge the riches of divine grace, by which that people have been instrumental in making the fields white already to harvest.” Spaulding, Josiah, The Burden and Heat of the Day, borne by the Jewish Church, A Sermon Preached at Shelburne, Before the Auxiliary Society for Foreign Missions, Oct. 12, 1813 (Boston: Samuel T. Armstrong, 1814), 28.Google Scholar

18. “The Jews,” Religious Intelligencer 6 (January 26, 1822): 569.

19. Cogswell, William, The Christian Philanthropist; or, Harbinger of the Millennium (Boston: Perkins & Marvin, 1839), 119.Google Scholar See also Colby, Philip, The Conversion and Restoration of the jews (Boston: Perkins & Marvin, 1836)Google Scholar; Bacheler, Origen, Restoration and Conversion of the Jews (Providence, R.I.: Isaac Wilcox, 1843)Google Scholar; and Sprague, William Buell, A Sermon Delivered In Connection With the Anniversary of the American Society for Meliorating the Condition of the Jews (New York, 1847).Google Scholar In these and many other works, Christian concern for the Jews is shifted from the past (i.e., the Crucifixion) to the future. In fact, that future is in some degree made dependent on the Jews. The followers of William Miller dissented from this attention given to the Jews. See, for instance, Jacobs, Enoch, The Doctrine of A Thousand Years Millennium, and the Return of the jews to Palestine, Before the Second Advent ofOur Saviour, Without Foundation In the Bible (Cincinnati: Kendall & Barnard, 1844).Google Scholar

20. Philadelphia Presbyterian Magazine, quoted in “On the Conversion of the Jews,” The Religious Intelligencer 6 (March 23, 1862): 692; “Promotion of Christianity Among the Jews,” Christian Herold 5 (1818): 716; “Report of the Directors of the Worcester County Jews Society,” in Israel's Advocate 3 (Jury 1825): 105.

21. “Society of Females in Boston,” The Panoplist and Missionary Magazine 13 (September 1817): 427. The Jews were not simply passive recipients of God's grace but, as the above quotes demonstrate, as the Christians’ “eider brothers,” they would take the lead in winning the world for Christ: “They will eventually embrace the Gospel; and being thus scattered and preserved, they are probably designed as instruments in the hand of God to promote the conversion of the world; and when they are again brought into the kingdom, and not till then, will be brought in also the fullness of the Gentiles.” The quote is from “Salvation Is of the Jews,” Religious Intelligencer 5 (June 3, 1820): 55.

22. “Prophetic Periods,” Bible Examiner 3 (April 1848): 57.

23. Richmond Evangelical and Literary Magazine, quoted in Israel's Advocate 1 (April 1823): 108; Magazine of the Reformed Dutch Church 1 (July 1826): 102.

24. Baldwin, S. D., Armageddon; or, the Overthrow of Romanism … (Cincinnati: Applegate & Co., 1854), 60.Google Scholar

25. It was a concept not limited to literature explicitly dedicated to Jewish conversion and restoration. Consider, for instance, Timothy Dwight's The Conquest of Canaan (Hartford, Conn.: Elisha Babcock, 1785). In this interminable epic, the settlement of Connecticut and Israel's entry into the Promised Land are conflated, along with a series of love stories. For Dwight, as for so many others, the histories of the American people and the children of Israel were mutually illuminating, especially in regard to their “chosen” Status and their forced entry into the wilderness.

26. Israel's Advocate 2 (April 1824): 61.

27. For English identification with the Jews during this same period, see Mayir Verete, “The Restoration of the Jews in English Protestant Thought, 1790-1840,” Middle Eastern Studies (1972); Crombie, Kelvin, For the Love of Zion: Christian Witness and the Restoration of Israel (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1991)Google Scholar; and Stein, Joshua B., Our Great Solicitor: Josiah Wedgwood and the Jews (Selinsgrove, Penn.: Susquehanna University Press, 1992).Google Scholar Halsted, Thomas D., Our Mission (London: William Macintosh, 1866)Google Scholar, is a history of the London Jews Society to that date; the Rev. Gidney, W. T., The History of the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews, From 1809 to 1908 (London: The Society, 1908)Google Scholar, is a detailed, if pedestrian, factual account.

28. Harp, Louis, The Image of the Jew in American Literature (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1974)Google Scholar, is an exhaustive study of the Jew in American fiction. See 19-132 for an intriguing account of antebellum popular novels.

29. Sarna, Jonathan D., “The ‘Mythical Jew’ and the ‘Jew Next Door’ in Nineteenth-Century America,” in Anti-Semitism in American History, ed. Gerber, David A. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).Google Scholar See also Jaher, Frederic Cople, A Scapegoat in the New Wilderness: The Origins and Rise of Anti-Semitism in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994).Google Scholar

30. It is a mistake to assume that the absence of Jews in a young America explains the general absence of anti-Semitism. First, it is morally wrong to assume that the presence of Jews, rather than a flaw in human nature, accounts for the phenomenon in the first place. Second, historically, there is no unvarying connection between the presence of Jews and anti-Semitism. Laqueur, Walter, The Black Hundred: The Rise of the Extreme Right in Russia (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), 12 Google Scholar, states that it is not certain whether Dostoyevsky, to cite one example, ever met a Jew. This did not prevent his being a fervent anti-Semite. In Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994), Richard Pipes comments on the restricted contact between Russian peasants and Russia's Jews, most of whom were segregated within the Pale. Yet, the Russian peasant was typically the most anti-Semitic in Europe. There is no historical reason why a wholly Christian America could not have been a wholly anti-Semitic one.

31. The Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (July 1819): 328; 13 (September 1817): 426.

32. “No more than 3,000 Jews lived in America in 1825. Dwelling in any signinificant number in only seven states, American Jews then accounted for only three out of every thousand Jews in the world.” Diner, Haisa R., The Jewish People in America: The Second Migration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 56.Google Scholar See also Marcus, Jacob Rader, United States Jewry, 3 vols. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1989) 1:46 Google Scholar; and Faber, Eli, The Jewish People in America: A Time for Planting (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 142.Google Scholar

33. The area of the United States, after the Transcontinental Treaty, was roughly two million Square miles.

34. Israel's Advocate 3 (July 1825): 108.

35. Israel's Advocate 2 (March 1824): 34-35.

36. The Panoplist and Missionary Magazine 13 (September 1817): 426.

37. “On the Conversion of the Jews,” The Christian Spectator 2 (January 1820): 14, 17.

38. “History and present State of the Jewish Nation,” The Washington Theological Repertory 2 (July 1821): 358, 359.

39. “Promotion of Christianity Among the Jews,” 710; Christian Review 2 (June 1837): 201; “Gentiles Praying for the Jews,” Israel's Advocate 1 (January 1823): 9; Christian Spectator 2 (February 1, 1823): 82; Israel's Advocate 2 (June 1824): 89.

40. Israel's Advocate 3 (July 1825): 85; The Magazine of the Reformed Dutch Church 1 (July 1827): 100.

41. “Dr. Herschel and the Jews,” The American Protestant Magazine 1 (June 1845): 6-7; Mississippi Chronicle (n.d.), quoted in The Baptist Missionary Magazine 19 (July 1830): 231.

42. Christian Spectator 2 (February 1, 1823): 83; Israel's Advocate 2 (January 1824): 8.

43. American Baptist Missionary Magazine 4 (September 1823): 176; “Efforts for Evangelizing the Jews,” The Christian Spectator 4 (June 1822): 321; “Qn the Conversion of the Jews,” 17; “Improved Condition of the Jews in Germany” Religious Intelligencer 12 (July 7, 1827): 123; Hooker, E. W., “Condition of the Jewish Mind Relative to the Scriptures,” American Theological Review 2 (November 1860): 641.Google Scholar These anecdotes of Jews flocking to the cross are invariably several times removed from their alleged source. This last example, for instance, is a New York religious Journal quoting a letter to a Philadelphia newspaper written from a man in Chicago about conversions he had heard of in Cincinnati.

44. “Efforts for Evangelizing the Jews,” 321; Israel's Advocate 2 (April 1824): 66; Hooker, “Condition of the Jewish Mind,” 641.

45. Maria, ——, The Convert Jewess, A Memoir of Maria—— (New York: G. Lane & R P. Sanford, 1843), 38–39.Google Scholar These scenes were a favorite. Another instance had a dying young Jewish girl whisper last words to her father, “Never again speak against this Jesus of Nazareth.” The father, in consequence, “is now numbered among the meek and humble followers of the Lamb.” Christian Herald 8 (May 19, 1821): 69-70.

46. “Introduction of the Millennium,” The Utica Christian Repository 5 (January 1826): 28; “History and present State of the Jewish Nation,” 359-60; “Thoughts Respecting the Jews,” The Religious Intelligencer 4 (May 1820): 653.

47. Dimmick, Luther F., “The Spirit of Prophecy in Relation to the Future Condition of the Jews,” Bibliotheca Sacra and Theological Review 4 (August 1847): 496 Google Scholar (this is a continuation from 4 (May 1847): 337-68); Bible Examiner 3 (April 1848): 58; “Observations in the East,” The Christian Review 11 (May 1846): 111. For additional attacks on the restoration idea, see also Rev. Wm. Scott, “The Case of the Jews Considered, with Particular reference to their supposed literal gathering,” Methodist Magazine and Quarterly Review 10 (October 1839): 361-83; 11 (April 1840): 179-202; 11 (October 1840): 411-28; and Stuart, Moses, Sermon at the Ordination of the Reverend William G. Schauffler, Missionary to the Jews (Andover, Mass.: Flagg & Gould, 1831).Google Scholar The august Stuart complained that, “when I resolve this whole subject in my mind, it seems to me so plain, so clear, so convincing, that I must regard as dreams all speculations about the literal return of the Jews” (24).

48. Palmer, Phoebe, Israel's Speedy Restoration and Conversion Contemplated; or, Signs of the Times (New York: John A. Gray, 1854), 18–19 Google Scholar; “Return of the Jews, and When,” Religious Intelligencer 7 (July 13, 1822): 108.

49. See, for instance, Bush, George, The Valley of the Vision: or the Dry Bones of Israel Revived. An attempted proof from Ezekiel (chap. xxxvii.1-14) of the Restoration and Conversion of the Jews (New York: Saxton & Miles, 1844)Google Scholar; Durbin, John P., Observations in the East…, 2 vols. (New York: Harpers, 1845)Google Scholar; Colby, Philip, The Conversion and Restoration of the Jews:… (Boston: Perkins & Marvin, 1836)Google Scholar; Bacheler, Origen, Restoration and Conversion of the Jews (Providence, R.I.: Isaac Wilcox, 1843)Google Scholar; Boudinot, Elias, The Second Advent, … (Trenton. N.J.: D. Fenton & Hutchinson, 1815)Google Scholar; Gorton, Benjamin, A Scriptural Account of the Millennium:… (Troy, N.Y.: Moffit & Lyon, 1802)Google Scholar; Crandall, A. L., A Brief Explanation of the Book of Revelation (Troy, N.Y.: James M. Stevenson, 1842)Google Scholar; Crandall, A. L., The Kingdom of Grace; or the Millenarian Theory Rigidly Examined (Cincinnati: E. Goodman, 1843)Google Scholar, an attack on Millerites; Cresson, Warder, Jerusalem the Centre and Joy of the Whole Earth and the Jew the Recipient of the Glory of God (Philadelphia: Jesper Harding, 1844)Google Scholar; Livermore, Harriet, Millennial Tidings (Philadelphia: the author, 1839)Google Scholar; and Livermore, Harriet, A Testimony for the Times (New York: the author, 1843)Google Scholar. Miss Livermore, like many others, was convinced that the American Indians were the Lost Tribes of Israel, and she journeyed to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, to urge the Cherokees to return to their ancestral homeland—in Palestine.

50. Israel's Advocate 2 (May 1824): 71; Richmond Evangelical and Literary Magazine, quoted in Israel's Advocate 1 (April 1823); Israel's Advocate 3 (July 1825): 102.

51. Israel's Advocate 2 (July 1824): 92; Ethan Smith, View of the Hebrews (Poultney, Vt.: Smith & Schute, 1823), 138.

52. Shimeall, Richard Cunningham, Christ's Second Coming: Is It Pre-Millennial or Post-Millennial? (New York: John F. Trow, 1868), 94 Google Scholar; McDonald, John F., Isaiah's Message to the American Nation (Albany, N.Y.: E. E. Hosford, 1814)Google Scholar; Israel's Advocate 1 (July 1823): 108.

53. Baldwin, Armageddon, 164.

54. A connection can be drawn between the disruptions caused by the Market Revolution and the receptiveness of a clerical audience for apocalyptic, as opposed to millennial, eschatologies. See, for example, the Reverend George Duffield's comments on the market changes going on in his America:

Duffield, George, Dissertations on the Prophecies Relative to the Second Coming of Christ (New York: Dayton & Newman, 1843), 276.Google Scholar Duffield edited, or assisted in editing, several millenarian Journals and published several pre-millennial works.

Not all premillennialists lamented the rise of industrialism (Eleazar Lord, for one, was a railroad magnate). Nearly all, however, were social conservatives who saw their America in a State of moral decline. It is toward the end of the Jacksonian period that these millenarian strictures began to appear. See Whalen, Robert, “Calvinism and Chiliasm: The Sociology of Nineteenth-Century American Millenarianism,” American Presbyterians 70 (Fall 1992): 163-72.Google Scholar

55. The catalog of works by this coterie of English millenarians from 1815 to about 1850 is simply immense. See, for instance, the following works of Bickersteth, Edward: Address In Behalf of the London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews (London, 1830)Google Scholar; The Claims of Israel On the Gentile Churches (Bath, 1841); A Practical Guide to the Prophecies (London: R. B. Seeley & W. Burnside, 1835); The Restoration of the Jews to Their Own Land:… (London: R. B. Seeley & W. Burnside, 1841); The Second Coming (London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1843); and The Time to Favour Zion:… (Edinburgh: L. & G. Seeley, 1839). For a biography of Bickersteth, a beloved figure, see Birks, T. R., Memoir of the Rev. Edward Bickersteth (New York: Harper & Bros., 1851).Google Scholar Further examples of English millenarian writing include the following works by Mc-Neile, Hugh: The Covenants Distinguished. A Sermon on the Restoration of the Jews (London: J. Hatchard, 1849)Google Scholar; Popular Lectures On the Prophecies Relative to the Jewish Nation (London: J. Hatchard, 1830); The World to Come in Subjugation to Christ (1840); and works by Cuninghame, William: The Fulfillment of the Revelation of St. John …to the Battle of Waterloo (London: J. Hatchard, 1819)Google Scholar; A Dissertation On the Seals and Trumpets of the Apocalypse (Glasgow, 1828); and The Season of the Lord (London: J. Nisbet & Co., 1814). These are all premillennial in tone and devoted to Jewish conversion and restoration. On the controversial Edward Irving, founder of the Catholic Apostolic Church, see Oliphant, Margaret, The Life of Edward Irving,… (New York: Harper, 1862)Google Scholar; and Root, Jean, Edward Irving: Man, Preacher, Prophet (New York: Sherman, French, 1912).Google Scholar A somewhat more recent work is Shaw, P. E., The Catholic Apostolic Church, … (New York: King's Crown Press, 1946).Google Scholar John Nelson Darby, of course, is a widely known figure in the history of dispensational premillennialism and the founder of the Plymouth Brethren. A brief survey of this English millenarian revival of the post-Napoleonic Era is in Sandeen, , Roots of Fundamentalism, 3–41.Google Scholar Darby's dispensational scheme, while not unknown in America prior to the Civil War, did not gain wide popularity until later in the Century.

56. Thompson, , Making of the English Working Class, 375–401 Google Scholar, and Harrison, The Second Coming, give accounts of the somewhat disreputable (by class Standards) chiliasm of the 1790's and the opening years of the nineteenth Century. There is no satisfactory account of the remarkable millenarianism among respectable evangelicals during the first half of the nineteenth Century.

57. Quoted in Froom, Edwin Leroy, The Prophetic Faith ofOur Fathers, 4 vols. (Washington D.C.: Review and Herald Press, 1946-1954), 3:268.Google Scholar

58. From 1840 to 1842, Joel Jones, one-time mayor of Philadelphia, edited The Literalist, a periodical that consisted entirely of verbatim reprints of monographs and sermons by Bickersteth, McNeile, and other English millenarians. In addition, many of their works were published in America under separate cover. Jones went on to coedit The Theological and Literary Journal (1848-1861) with David Nevins Lord.

59. It is a bit strange, perhaps, that historians, with the exception of Sandeen, have shown relatively little interest in this burgeoning antebellum millenarianism. It is possible that it is confused with Millerism—with which it had no truck. The literature is vast and, in its time, was controversial. See, for instance, Bryant, Alfred, Millenarian Views;… (New York: M. W. Dodd, 1852)Google Scholar; Buck, D. D., Our Lord's Great Prophecy… (Nashville: Southwest Publishing House, 1857)Google Scholar; George Duffield (who became Moderator of the Presbyterian Church, N.S.), Dissertations on the Prophecies Relative to the Second Coming of Christ, and Millenarianism Defended… (New York: Mark H. Newman, 1843); Henshaw, J. P. K., An Inquiry Into the Meaning of the Prophecies Relating to the Second Advent of Our Lord Jesus Christ (Baltimore: Daniel Brunner, 1842)Google Scholar; Janeway, J. J., Hope For the Jews (New Brunswick, N.J.: J. Terhune & Sons, 1853)Google Scholar; Kirkwood, Robert, Lectures on the Millennium (New York: Sheldon, Blakeman & Co., 1856)Google Scholar; Labagh, Isaac P., The Perpetuity of the Earth (New York: John Moffet, 1842)Google Scholar; Lord, David N., The Coming and Reign of Christ (New York: Franklin Knight, 1858)Google Scholar; Lord, David N., An Exposition of the Apocalypse (New York: Franklin Knight, 1859)Google Scholar; and Seiss, Joseph A., The Last Times (Baltimore: T. Newton Kurtz, 1856).Google Scholar The list could be extended at length. Specifically millenarian Journals that followed the British model included the American Millenarian and Prophetic Review (New York), The Literalist (Philadelphia), Prophetic Times (Philadelphia), The Theological and Literary Journal (New York), which was immensely influential among American premillennialists, Waymarks in the Wilderness (Detroit and St. Louis), and The Bible Examiner (Philadelphia). The authors and editors of these works frequently collaborated, wrote introductions for each other's tomes, coedited Journals, etc. During the 1840's, several authors banded together to form the Pre-Millennial Association of New York to advance their views on an organized basis.

Contemporaries readily recognized these authors as an emerging school of theology and were often bitterly hostile. For works along this line, see Stuart, Moses, Hints On the Interpretation of Prophecy (Andover, Mass.: Allen, Morril & Wardwell, 1842)Google Scholar; Spring, Gardiner, The Glory of Christ, 2 vols. (New York: M. W. Dodd, 1852)Google Scholar, the second volume of which attacks New York's millenarians; Crosby, Alpheus, The Second Advent (Boston: Phillips, Sampson, and Co., 1850)Google Scholar, by a brilliant Dartmouth scholar; and Crawford, J. A., The Second Advent (Boston: James M'Millan, 1858).Google Scholar The Journals likewise were full of attacks on American premillennialists (again, not William Miller). See, for instance, “The Eschatology of Christ,” Bibliotheca Sacra 7 (Jury 1850): 452-78; and Steele, Joseph, “Will the Grand Consummation…,” Bibliotheca Sacra and Theological Review 6 (January 1849): 657-72.Google Scholar This short bibliography does not even begin to mention the ephemeral pamphlet literature.

60. The term “chiliasm” has been used since the early church to refer to a belief in the incipient return of Christ. In modern usage (from the eighteenth Century onward), it is synonymous with millenarianism and premillennialism. All these terms refer to an eschatology that anticipates Christ's return prior to the millennium, a return most likely to be combined with an apocalyptic Showdown of fire and blood between the forces of Satan and the Saints.

61. The imagery, of course, is drawn from Revelation 20.

62. “Modern Millenarianism,” Biblical Repertory and Theological Review 25 (January 1853): 67.

63. See esp. Barkun, Michael, Crucible of the Millennium: The Burned-Over District of New York in the 1840s (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1986)Google Scholar, which details the affinity between antislavery and many leading Millerites. Barkun refers to the Millerites as millenarians. Technically, this is correct; however, it was common practice during the antebellum era for that term to be reserved for premillennialists who did not follow William Miller. On Millerite social views, see Numbers and Butler, eds., The Disappointed, 139-52.

64. Wellcome, Isaac C., History of the Second Advent Doctrine (Boston, 1874), 165 Google Scholar, quoted in Sandeen, , Roots of Fundamentalism, 52 Google Scholar; “Millenarianism,” Presbyterian Quarterly Review 2 (June 1853): 20. Sandeen, in his Roots of Fundamentalism, attempted to locate Millerism within a larger millennial enthusiasm in America and so tie together various strains of eschatology. See esp. pages 42-55. Similarity of rhetoric, however, does not establish a common intellectual pedigree.

65. Whalen, “Calvinism and Chiliasm,” explores the Calvinist predilections of these antebellum millenarians. Hatch, Democratization of American Christianity, demonstrates the tension between the burgeoning Arminianism of that era and the older Augustinian tradition.

66. Nathan Lord to J. C. Bodwell, October 1865; Lord to “Nephew,” April 7, 1855; both found in Nathan Lord MSS, Baker Memorial Library, Dartmouth College (this file is filled with Lord's premillennial sermons); Lord, Nathan, The Improvement of the Present State of Things: A Discourse to the Students of Dartmouth College (Hanover, N.H.: Dartmouth Press, 1859), 52 Google Scholar; Lord, Nathan, A True Picture of Abolition (Boston: Press of the Daily Courier), 11 Google Scholar; Nathan Lord to “Nephew,” March 21, 1846, Nathan Lord MSS (this last quotation, of course, predates Lord's dismissal from Dartmouth by some years, but it is of a piece with his post-retirement bitterness).

For Nathan Lord's other strictures on the slavery question, see Lord, Nathan, A Letter of Inquiry to Ministers of the Gospel of All Denominations on Slavery (Boston: Fetridge & Co., 1854)Google Scholar; and Lord, Nathan, A Northern Presbyter's Second Letter to Ministers of the Gospel of All Denominations On Slavery (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1856).Google Scholar For a brief description of Nathan Lord's life, see Dictionary of American Biography, s.v. “Lord, Nathan.” Other works by premillennialists excoriating antislavery could be cited; e.g., “Review of David M. Krebs, The American Citizen,” Theological and Literary Journal 4 (April 1851); or Duffield, George, Our National Sins to Be Repented Of (Detroit: Free Press Mammoth Book and Job Printing, 1861).Google Scholar

67. David Austin, The Millennium, in David Austin, ed., The Downfall of Mystical Babylon (Elizabeth Town [i.e., Elizabeth, N.J.]: Shepard Kollock, 1794), 393.

68. For an analysis of the conservative political and social views of one prominent millenarian, see Whalen, Robert, “Eleazar Lord and the Reformed Tradition: Christian Capitalist in the Age of Jackson” American Presbyterians (Winter 1994): 219-28.Google Scholar Lord was a onetime clergyman and wealthy Whig businessman (he founded the Erie Railroad) who used his money to bankroll millenarian publications.

69. Joseph Steele, “Will the Grand Consummation, Giving the Kingdoms of This World to Christ, Be Introduced Under the Dispensation of the Spirit?” Bibliotheca Sacra 7 (July 1850): 657.

70. “Bush on Ezekiel's Vision,” Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review 16 (July 1848): 380; “The Going Up of All Nations to Worship the Lord at Jerusalem,” American Millenarian and Prophetic Review 2 (February 1, 1844): 130; “The Restoration of the Jews to Their Own Land,” American Millenarian and Prophetic Review 2 (January 1, 1844): 121.

71. The New York millenarians of the era 1840-1860 formed a scholarly elite within premillennialism. This group included David Nevins Lord and his brother Eleazar Lord. Together, with Joel Jones, they edited the chiliast Theological and Literary Journal (1848-1861). They were assisted by George Duffield. Others of this clique included Stephen Higginson Tyng, Sr., Rector of St. George's Church and Episcopal Bishop of Manhattan; the distinguished biblical scholar John Lillie; and missionary to the Jews, Isaac P. Labagh. Labagh edited his own millenarian Journal, American Millenarian and Prophetic Review (1842-1844). Labagh and Lillie faced heresy inquiries because of their chiliasm, and Labagh was stripped of his pulpit.

72. Lord, D. N., “The Restoration of the Israelites,” Theological and Literary Journal 2 (April 1, 1849): 274, 272.Google Scholar

73. Elizabeth, Charlotte, “Israel's Ordinance,” American Millenarian and Prophetic Review 2 (April 1, 1844): 186.Google Scholar

74. Seiss, , The Last Times, 169 Google Scholar. Seiss went on to edit The Prophetic Times and published numerous eschatological works for half a Century. His magnum opus was The Apocalypse, 4 vols. (New York: Charles C. Cook, 1900).