Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T15:20:22.181Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A New Radiocarbon Sequence from Lamanai, Belize: Two Bayesian Models from One of Mesoamerica’s Most Enduring Sites

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 July 2016

Jonathan A Hanna Open the ORCID record for Jonathan A Hanna [Opens in a new window] ,
Elizabeth Graham Open the ORCID record for Elizabeth Graham [Opens in a new window] ,
David M Pendergast ,
Julie A Hoggarth Open the ORCID record for Julie A Hoggarth [Opens in a new window] ,
David L Lentz  and
Douglas J Kennett
Jonathan A Hanna*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, 409 Carpenter Building, University Park, PA 16802
Elizabeth Graham
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK
David M Pendergast
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK
Julie A Hoggarth
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97173, Waco, TX 76798
David L Lentz
Affiliation:
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, 614 Rieveschl Hall, Cincinnati, OH 45221
Douglas J Kennett
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Institutes of Energy and the Environment, 409 Carpenter Building, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
*
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The ancient Maya community of Lamanai, Belize, is well known for its span of occupation from the Early Preclassic (before 1630 BC) to the present. Although most centers in the central and southern Maya Lowlands were abandoned during the Terminal Classic period (AD 750–1000), ceramic and stratigraphic evidence at Lamanai has shown continuous occupation from the start of the Early Preclassic to the Spanish Conquest. In this paper, we present the first complete set of radiocarbon dates from this important site, including 19 new accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) 14C dates. We use these dates to build Bayesian models for a Terminal Classic structure and an Early Postclassic structure in the site center. This method assists in the refinement of older, conventional dates and provides key chronological information about the site during this volatile time. Adjustments to the standard, uniform distribution model are made using exponential, long-tail, and trapezoidal distributions to incorporate outlier samples and more accurately portray ceramic phases. Because of changes in construction behavior in the Terminal Classic, it is difficult to acquire primary samples from this period, but there remains enough overlap between dates and ceramic phases to deduce persistent occupation at Lamanai during the transition from Late Classic to Postclassic times.

Keywords

Terminal ClassicPostclassictrapezoidoutlierold wood
Type
Research Article
Information
Radiocarbon , Volume 58 , Issue 4 , December 2016 , pp. 771 - 794
Copyright
© 2016 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Adams, REW, Valdez, F Jr, Houk, BA, Matthews, R. 2004. Transformations, periodicity, and urban development in the Three Rivers region. In: Demarest AA, Rice PM, Rice DS, editors. The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. p 324–341.Google Scholar
Aimers, JJ. 2007. What Maya collapse? Terminal Classic variation in the Maya Lowlands. Journal of Archaeological Research 15(4):329–377.Google Scholar
Aimers, JJ, Graham, E. 2013. Type-variety on trial: experiments in classification and meaning using ceramic assemblages from Lamanai, Belize. In: Aimers JJ, editor. Ancient Maya Pottery: Classification, Analysis, and Interpretation . Gainesville: University Press of Florida. p 91–106.Google Scholar
Aimers, JJ, Hodell, D. 2011. Societal collapse: drought and the Maya. Nature 479(7371):44–45.Google Scholar
Andres, CR, Pyburn, KA. 2004. Out of sight: the Postclassic and Early Colonial periods at Chau Hiix, Belize. In: Demarest AA, Rice PM, Rice DS, editors. The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. p 402–423.Google Scholar
Bayliss, A. 2009. Rolling out revolution: using radiocarbon dating in archaeology. Radiocarbon 51(1):123–147.Google Scholar
Bettinger, RL. 2016. Prehistoric hunter–gatherer population growth rates rival those of agriculturalists. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 113(4):812–814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brainerd, GW. 1951. The place of chronological ordering in archaeological analysis. American Antiquity 16(4):301–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brock, F, Higham, T, Ditchfield, P, Bronk Ramsey, C. 2010. Current pretreatment methods for AMS radiocarbon dating at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU). Radiocarbon 52(1):103–112.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C. 1995. Radiocarbon calibration and analysis of stratigraphy: the OxCal program. Radiocarbon 37(2):425–430.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C. 2000. Comment on “The use of Bayesian statistics for 14C dates of chronologically ordered samples: a critical analysis.” Radiocarbon 42(2):199–202.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C. 2008. Radiocarbon dating: revolutions in understanding. Archaeometry 50(2):249–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C. 2009a. Dealing with outliers and offsets in radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon 51(3):1023–1045.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C. 2009b. Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 51(1):337–360.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C. 2014a. OxCal v.4.2.4. Released 2014 May 9. Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU) https: //c14.arch.ox.ac.uk [accessed 2015 Jun 28].Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C. 2014b. Chronological Query Language (CQL2) Command Reference. OxCal Project.Google Scholar
Buck, CE, Kenworthy, JB, Litton, CD, Smith, AFM. 1991. Combining archaeological and radiocarbon information: a Bayesian approach to calibration. Antiquity 65:808–821.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buck, CE, Cavanagh, WG, Litton, CD. 1996. Bayesian Approach to Interpreting Archaeological Data. Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Chapman, A. 1957. Port of trade enclaves in Aztec and Maya civilizations. In: Polanyi K, Maynadier Arensberg C, Pearson HW, editors. Trade and Market in the Early Empires: Economies in History and Theory. Volume 89. Glencoe: Free Press. p 114–153.Google Scholar
Contreras, DA, Meadows, J. 2014. Summed radiocarbon calibrations as a population proxy: a critical evaluation using a realistic simulation approach. Journal of Archaeological Science 52:591–608.Google Scholar
Culleton, BJ. 2008. Crude demographic proxy reveals nothing about Paleoindian population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 105:E111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Culleton, BJ, Prufer, KM, Kennett, DJ. 2012. A Bayesian AMS 14C chronology of the Classic Maya center of Uxbenká, Belize. Journal of Archaeological Science 39(5):1572–1586.Google Scholar
Dee, M, Bronk Ramsey, C. 2000. Refinement of graphite target production at ORAU. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 172(1–4):449–453.Google Scholar
Dee, M, Bronk Ramsey, C. 2014. High-precision Bayesian modeling of samples susceptible to inbuilt age. Radiocarbon 56(1):83–94.Google Scholar
Demarest, AA, Rice, PM, Rice, DS. 2004. The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: assessing collapses, terminations, and transformations. In: Demarest AA, Rice PM, Rice DS, editors. The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation . Boulder: University Press of Colorado. p 545–572.Google Scholar
Douglas, PMJ, Brenner, M, Curtis, JH. 2016. Methods and future directions for paleoclimatology in the Maya Lowlands. Global and Planetary Change 138:3–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebert, CE, Prufer, KM, Macri, MJ, Winterhalder, B, Kennett, DJ. 2014. Terminal long count dates and the disintegration of Classic Period Maya polities. Ancient Mesoamerica 25:337–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebert, CE, Culleton, BJ, Awe, JJ, Kennett, DJ. 2016. AMS 14C dating of Preclassic to Classic Period household construction in the ancient Maya community of Cahal Pech, Belize. Radiocarbon 58(1):69–87.Google Scholar
Flint, RF, Deevey, ES. 1962. Editorial statement. Radiocarbon 4:v–vi.Google Scholar
Godwin, H. 1962. Radiocarbon dating: Fifth International Conference. Nature 195(4845):943–945.Google Scholar
Graham, E. 1987. Terminal classic to historic-period vessel forms from Belize. In: Rice PM, Sharer RJ, editors. Maya Ceramics: Papers from the 1985 Maya Ceramic Conference. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. p 73–98.Google Scholar
Graham, E. 2004. Lamanai reloaded: alive and well in the Early Postclassic. In: Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology: Papers of the 2004 Belize Archaeology Symposium. Volume 1. Belmopan: Institute of Archaeology, NICH. p 223–241.Google Scholar
Graham, E. 2007. Lamanai, Belize from collapse to conquest—radiocarbon dates from Lamanai. Paper presented at the 106th Meeting of the AAA, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Graham, E. 2008. Lamanai Historic Monuments Conservation Project: Recording and Consolidation of New Church Architectural Features at Lamanai, Belize. Crystal River: Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI).Google Scholar
Graham, E. 2011. Maya Christians and Their Churches in Sixteenth-Century Belize. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.Google Scholar
Graham, E, Pendergast, DM, Jones, GD. 1989. On the fringes of conquest: Maya-Spanish contact in colonial Belize. Science 246(4935):1254–1259.Google Scholar
Grube, N, Martin, S, editors. 2004. The Proceedings of the Maya Hieroglyphic Workshop— Patronage, Betrayal, and Revenge Diplomacy and Politics in The Eastern Maya Lowlands (The Maya Meetings at Texas, March 13–14, 2004). Austin: University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Guderjan, TH, Garber, J, editors. 1995. Maya Maritime Trade, Settlement, and Populations on Ambergris Caye, Belize. San Antonio: Maya Research Program.Google Scholar
Hammond, N, Bobo, MR. 1994. Pilgrimage’s last mile: Late Maya monument veneration at La Milpa, Belize. World Archaeology 26:19–34.Google Scholar
Hammond, N, Tourtellot, G. 2004. Out with a whimper: La Milpa in the Terminal Classic. In: Demarest AA, Rice PM, Rice DS, editors. The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. p 288–301.Google Scholar
Haug, GH, Hughen, KA, Sigman, DM, Peterson, LC, Rohl, U. 2001. Southward migration of the intertropical convergence zone through the Holocene. Science 293(5533):1304–1308.Google Scholar
Hodell, DA, Brenner, M, Curtis, JH. 2005. Terminal Classic drought in the northern Maya lowlands inferred from multiple sediment cores in Lake Chichancanab (Mexico). Quaternary Science Reviews 24(12–13):1413–1427.Google Scholar
Hoggarth, JA, Culleton, BJ, Awe, JJ, Kennett, DJ. 2014. Questioning Postclassic continuity at Baking Pot, Belize, using direct AMS 14C dating of human burials. Radiocarbon 56(3):1057–1075.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoggarth, JA, Breitenbach, SFM, Culleton, BJ, Ebert, CE, Masson, MA, Kennett, DJ. 2016. The political collapse of Chichén Itzá in climatic and cultural context. Global and Planetary Change 138:25–42.Google Scholar
Honea, K. 1975. Prehistoric remains on the Island of Kythnos. American Journal of Archaeology 79(3):277–279.Google Scholar
Howie, LA. 2005. Ceramic production and consumption in the Maya Lowlands during the Classic to Postclassic transition: a technological study of ceramics at Lamanai, Belize [PhD dissertation]. Sheffield: The University of Sheffield.Google Scholar
Howie, LA. 2012. Ceramic Change and the Maya Collapse: A Study of Pottery Technology, Manufacture and Consumption at Lamanai, Belize. BAR International Series 2373. Oxford: Archaeopress.Google Scholar
Huster, AC, Smith, ME. 2015. A new archaeological chronology for Aztec-Period Calixtlahuaca, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 26(1):3–25.Google Scholar
Inomata, T, Triadan, D, Aoyama, K, Castillo, V, Yonenobu, H. 2013. Early ceremonial constructions at Ceibal, Guatemala, and the origins of lowland Maya civilization. Science 340(6131):467–471.Google Scholar
Inomata, T, Ortiz, R, Arroyo, B, Robinson, EJ. 2014. Chronological revision of Preclassic Kaminaljuyú, Guatemala: implications for social processes in the southern Maya area. Latin American Antiquity 25(4):377–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennett, DJ, Ingram, BL, Southon, JR, Wise, K. 2002. Differences in 14C age between stratigraphically associated charcoal and marine shell from the Archaic Period site of Kilometer 4, southern Peru: old wood or old water? Radiocarbon 44(1):53–58.Google Scholar
Kennett, DJ, Culleton, BJ, Voorhies, B, Southon, JR. 2011. Bayesian analysis of high-precision AMS 14C dates from a prehistoric Mexican shellmound. Radiocarbon 53(2):245–259.Google Scholar
Kennett, DJ, Breitenbach, SFM, Aquino, VV, Asmerom, Y, Awe, J, Baldini, JUL, Bartlein, P, Culleton, BJ, Ebert, C, Jazwa, C, Macri, MJ, Marwan, N, Polyak, V, Prufer, KM, Ridley, HE, Sodemann, H, Winterhalder, B, Haug, GH. 2012. Development and disintegration of Maya political systems in response to climate change. Science 338(6108):788–791.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennett, DJ, Hajdas, I, Culleton, BJ, Belmecheri, S, Martin, S, Neff, H, Awe, J, Graham, HV, Freeman, KH, Newsom, L, et al. 2013. Correlating the ancient Maya and modern European calendars with high-precision AMS 14C dating. Scientific Reports 3:1597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennett, DJ, Culleton, BJ, Dexter, J, Mensing, SA, Thomas, DH. 2014. High-precision AMS 14C chronology for Gatecliff Shelter, Nevada. Journal of Archaeological Science 52:621–632.Google Scholar
Kennett, DJ, Hoggarth, JA, Culleton, BJ. 2015. Examining the disintegration of Maya polities and demographic decline in the Central Maya Lowlands. Grant proposal funded by the National Science Foundation (BCS-1460369, $103,058, 2015-2016).Google Scholar
King, EM, editor. 2015. The Ancient Maya Marketplace: The Archaeology of Transient Space. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Krueger, HW, Weeks, CF. 1965. Geochron Laboratories, Inc. radiocarbon measurements I. Radiocarbon 7:47–53.Google Scholar
Krueger, HW, Weeks, CF. 1966. Geochron Laboratories, Inc. radiocarbon measurements II. Radiocarbon 8:142–160.Google Scholar
Lee, S, Bronk Ramsey, C. 2012. Development and application of the trapezoidal model for archaeological chronologies. Radiocarbon 54(1):107–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, S, Bronk Ramsey, C, Mazar, A. 2013. Iron Age chronology in Israel: results from modeling with a trapezoidal Bayesian framework. Radiocarbon 55(2–3):731–740.Google Scholar
Lentz, DL, Yaeger, J, Robin, C, Ashmore, W. 2005. Pine, prestige and politics of the Late Classic Maya at Xunantunich, Belize. Antiquity 79(305):573–585.Google Scholar
Loten, HS. 2006. A distinctive Maya architectural format: the Lamanai Temple. In: Andrews AP, Pendergast D, editors. Reconstructing the past: studies in Mesoamerican and Central American Prehistory. BAR International Series 1529. Oxford: Archaeopress. p 89–106.Google Scholar
Masson, MA. 2002. Community economy and the mercantile transformation in Postclassic northeastern Belize. In: Freidel DA, Masson MA, editors. Ancient Maya Political Economies. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press. p 335–364.Google Scholar
Masson, MA, Freidel, DA. 2012. An argument for Classic era Maya market exchange. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31:455–484.Google Scholar
Masson, MA, Freidel, DA. 2013. Wide open spaces: a long view of the importance of Maya market exchange. In: Hirth KG, Pillsbury J, editors. Merchants, Markets, and Exchange in the Pre-Columbian World. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. p 201–228.Google Scholar
Masson, MA, Mock, SB. 2004. Ceramics and settlement patterns at Terminal Classic-period lagoon sites in northeastern Belize. In: Demarest AA, Rice PM, Rice DS, editors. The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. p 367–401.Google Scholar
Mayfield, T. 2015. Historical-archaeological analysis of the nineteenth-century British plantation settlement at Lamanai, Belize (1837–1868) [PhD dissertation]. Tucson: University of Arizona.Google Scholar
McKillop, H. 1996. Ancient Maya trading ports and the integration of long-distance and regional economies: Wild Cane Cay in south-coastal Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 7:49–62.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, S, Breen, A, Murray, M, Furley, P, Fallick, A, McKenzie, A. 2009. Environmental change in northern Belize since the latest Pleistocene. Journal of Quaternary Science 24(6):627–641.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morehart, CT, Lentz, DL, Prufer, KM. 2005. Wood of the gods: the ritual use of pine (Pinus spp.) by the ancient Lowland Maya. Latin American Antiquity 16(3):255–274.Google Scholar
Mueller, AD, Islebe, GA, Anselmetti, FS, Ariztegui, D, Brenner, M, Hodell, DA, Hajdas, I, Hamann, Y, Haug, GH, Kennett, DJ. 2010. Recovery of the forest ecosystem in the tropical lowlands of northern Guatemala after disintegration of Classic Maya polities. Geology 38(6):523–526.Google Scholar
Nelson, C. 1980. The Elmenteitan lithic industry. In: Leakey RE, Ogot BA, editors. Pan-African Congress on Prehistory and Quaternary Studies. Proceedings of the 8th Panafrican Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies: Nairobi, 5 to 10 September, 1977. Nairobi: International Louis Leakey Memorial Institute for African Prehistory.Google Scholar
Olsson, IU. 1970. The use of oxalic acid as a standard. In: Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Chronology: Proceedings of the 12th Nobel Symposium, Uppsala University. New York: Wiley Interscience Division. p 12.Google Scholar
ORAU website. 22 October 2015. Methods: Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit. https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/methods.html. Accessed 4 November 2015.Google Scholar
Overholtzer, L. 2014. A new Bayesian chronology for Postclassic and Colonial occupation at Xaltocan, Mexico. Radiocarbon 56(3):1077–1092.Google Scholar
Pendergast, DM. 1981. Lamanai, Belize: summary of excavation results, 1974–1980. Journal of Field Archaeology 8:29–53.Google Scholar
Pendergast, DM. 1982a. Lamanai, Belice, durante el Posclásico. Estudios de Cultura Maya 14:19–58.Google Scholar
Pendergast, DM. 1982b. Ottawa, Stella Dallas, and the Woodlice. Archaeological Newsletter of the Royal Ontario Museum (ROM). New Series #203, Toronto.Google Scholar
Pendergast, DM. 1985. Lamanai, Belize: an updated view. In: Chase AF, Rice PM, editors. The Lowland Maya Postclassic. Austin: University of Texas Press. p 91–103.Google Scholar
Pendergast, DM. 1986. Stability through change: Lamanai, Belize, from the ninth to the seventeenth century. In: Sabloff JA, Andrews VEW, editors. Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Postclassic. Albuquerque: School of American Research, University of New Mexico Press. p 223–249.Google Scholar
Pendergast, DM. 1988. Lamanai Stela 9: the archaeological context. Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 20:1–8. Washington, DC: Center for Maya Research.Google Scholar
Pendergast, DM. 1990. Up from the dust: the central lowlands Postclassic as seen from Lamanai and Marco González, Belize. In: Clancy FS, Harrison PD, editors. Vision and Revision in Maya Studies. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p 169–177.Google Scholar
Pendergast, DM. 1998. Intercession with the gods: caches and their significance at Altun Ha and Lamanai, Belize. In: Mock SB, editor. The Sowing and the Dawning: Termination, Dedication, and Transformation in the Archaeological and Ethnographic Record of Mesoamerica. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p 55–63.Google Scholar
Pendergast, DM. 2000. The problems raised by small charcoal samples for radiocarbon analysis. Journal of Field Archaeology 27:237–239.Google Scholar
Pendergast, DM. 2006. Patterns of cache composition and placement at Lamanai, Belize. In: Andrews AP, Pendergast D, editors. Reconstructing the Past: Studies in Mesoamerican and Central American Prehistory. BAR International Series 1529. Oxford: Archaeopress. p 59–70.Google Scholar
Phillipson, DW. 1977. The excavation of Gobedra rock-shelter, Axum: an early occurrence of cultivated finger millet in northern Ethiopia. AZANIA: Journal of the British Institute in Eastern Africa 12:53–82.Google Scholar
Powis, TG. 2002. An integrative approach to the analysis of the late Preclassic ceramics at Lamanai, Belize [PhD dissertation]. Austin: University of Texas.Google Scholar
Powis, T, Mazzullo, SJ, Graham, E. 2009. An archaeological and geological assessment of a presumed ancient Maya harbour at Lamanai, Belize. In: Morris J, Jones S, Awe J, Thompson G, Helmke C, editors. Archaeological Investigations in the Eastern Maya lowlands: Papers of the 2008 Belize Archaeology Symposium. Volume 6. Belmopan: Institute of Archaeology, National Institute of Culture and History. p 252–262.Google Scholar
Prufer, KM, Dunham, PS. 2009. A shaman’s burial from an Early Classic cave in the Maya Mountains of Belize, Central America. World Archaeology 41:295–320.Google Scholar
Reimer, PJ, Bard, E, Bayliss, A, Beck, JW, Blackwell, PG, Bronk Ramsey, C, Buck, CE, Cheng, H, Edwards, RL, Friedrich, M, Grootes, PM, Guilderson, TP, Haflidason, H, Hajdas, I, Hatté, C, Heaton, TJ, Hoffmann, DL, Hogg, AG, Hughen, KA, Kaiser, KF, Kromer, B, Manning, SW, Niu, M, Reimer, RW, Richards, DA, Scott, EM, Southon, JR, Staff, RA, Turney, CSM, van der Plicht, J. 2013. IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55(4):1869–1887.Google Scholar
Rice, PM, Forsyth, DW. 2004. Terminal Classic-period lowland ceramics. In: Demarest A, Rice DS, editors. The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. p 28–59.Google Scholar
Robichaux, HR, Houk, BA. 2005. A hieroglyphic plate fragment from Dos Hombres, Belize: epigraphic and archaeological evidence relating to political organization in the Three Rivers region of northwestern Belize and northeastern Guatemala. In: Valdez Jr F, Meadows R, Houk BA, editors. Mono y Conejo: Journal of the Mesoamerican Archaeological Research Lab, The University of Texas at Austin 3:4–12.Google Scholar
Robinson, ME, McKillop, HI. 2013. Ancient Maya wood selection and forest exploitation: a view from the Paynes Creek salt works, Belize. Journal of Archaeological Science 40:3584–3595.Google Scholar
Robinson, WS. 1951. A method for chronologically ordering archaeological deposits. American Antiquity 16(4):293–301.Google Scholar
Rushton, EA, Metcalfe, SE, Whitney, BS. 2013. A late-Holocene vegetation history from the Maya lowlands, Lamanai, northern Belize. The Holocene 23:485–493.Google Scholar
Sabloff, JA, Henderson, JS, editors. 1993. Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D.: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 7th and 8th October 1989. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.Google Scholar
Sabloff, JA, Rathje, WL. 1975. The rise of the Maya merchant class. Scientific American 233:72–82.Google Scholar
Schiffer, MB. 1986. Radiocarbon dating and the “old wood” problem: the case of the Hohokam chronology. Journal of Archaeological Science 13(1):13–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simmons, SE, Pendergast, DM, Graham, E. 2009. The context and significance of copper artifacts in Postclassic and Early Historic Lamanai, Belize. Journal of Field Archaeology 34:57–75.Google Scholar
Staff, R, Reynard, L, Brock, F, Bronk Ramsey, C. 2014. Wood pretreatment protocols and measurement of tree-ring standards at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU). Radiocarbon 56(2):709–715.Google Scholar
Steier, P, Rom, W. 2000. The use of Bayesian statistics for 14C dates of chronologically ordered samples: a critical analysis. Radiocarbon 42(1):183–198.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M, Polach, HA. 1977. Discussion: reporting of 14C data. Radiocarbon 19(3):355–363.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M, Reimer, PJ. 2015 Nov 4. Isotope Fractionation Calculations. CALIB 14C Calibration Program, v.7.1. http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/fractionation.html. Accessed 4 November 2015.Google Scholar
Sullivan, LA, Sagebiel, KL. 2003. Changing political alliances in the Three Rivers region. In: Valdez Jr F, Scarborough VL, editors. Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East-Central Yucatán Peninsula. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. p 25–36.Google Scholar
Sullivan, LA, Houk, BA, Valdez, F Jr. 2007. The Terminal Classic in the Three Rivers region. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 4:135–146. Institute of Archaeology, NICH, Belize.Google Scholar
Taylor, RE, Bar-Yosef, O. 2014. Radiocarbon Dating: An Archaeological Perspective. 2nd edition. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.Google Scholar
Ting, KC. 2013. Change, continuity, and the Maya collapse: reconstructing the ceramic economy in the Eastern Maya Lowlands during the Classic to Postclassic transition [PhD dissertation]. London: Institute of Archaeology, University College London.Google Scholar
Thompson, JE. 1930. Ethnology of the Mayas of Southern and Central British Honduras. Publications of the Field Museum of Natural History. Anthropological Series 17:27–213.Google Scholar
Vogt, EZ. 1981. Some aspects of sacred geography of Highland Chiapas. In: Benson EP, editor. Mesoamerican Sites and World-Views: A Conference at Dumbarton Oaks, October 16th and 17th, 1976. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. p 119–143.Google Scholar
Walker, DS. 1990. Cerros revisited: ceramic indicators of Terminal Classic and Postclassic settlement and pilgrimage in northern Belize [PhD dissertation]. Dallas: Southern Methodist University.Google Scholar
Ward, GK, Wilson, SR. 1978. Procedures for comparing and combining radiocarbon age determinations: a critique. Archaeometry 20(1):19–31.Google Scholar
Webster, DL. 2002. The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. New York: Thames & Hudson.Google Scholar
Williams, AN. 2012. The use of summed radiocarbon probability distributions in archaeology: a review of methods. Journal of Archaeological Science 39(3):578–589.Google Scholar
Wrobel, G, Graham, EA. 2015. The Buk phase burials of Belize: testing genetic relatedness among Early Postclassic groups in northern Belize using dental morphology. In: Cucina A, editor. Archaeology and Bioarchaeology of Population Movement among the Prehispanic Maya. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p 85–95.Google Scholar
Zahid, HJ, Robinson, E, Kelly, RL. 2016. Agriculture, population growth, and statistical analysis of the radiocarbon record. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 113(4):931–935.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Hanna supplementary material

Hanna supplementary material 1

Download Hanna supplementary material(File)
File 21 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Hanna supplementary material

Hanna supplementary material 2

Download Hanna supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 3.4 MB