Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-b95js Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-10T20:39:57.080Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Retrodicting large herbivore biomass for the last glacial maximum on the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain (South Africa) using modern ecological knowledge of African herbivore assemblages and rainfall

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 May 2021

Christopher F. Brooke Open the ORCID record for Christopher F. Brooke [Opens in a new window] ,
Curtis W. Marean Open the ORCID record for Curtis W. Marean [Opens in a new window] ,
Colin D. Wren Open the ORCID record for Colin D. Wren [Opens in a new window] ,
Hervé Fritz Open the ORCID record for Hervé Fritz [Opens in a new window]  and
Jan A. Venter Open the ORCID record for Jan A. Venter [Opens in a new window]
Christopher F. Brooke
Affiliation:
Department of Conservation Management, Faculty of Science, George Camus, Nelson Mandela University, Madiba Drive, George, 6530 African Centre for Coastal Palaeoscience, Nelson Mandela University, PO Box 77000, Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape6031, South Africa.
Curtis W. Marean
Affiliation:
African Centre for Coastal Palaeoscience, Nelson Mandela University, PO Box 77000, Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape6031, South Africa. Institute of Human Origins, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, PO Box 872402, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ85287-2402, USA.
Colin D. Wren
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA.
Hervé Fritz
Affiliation:
REHABS International Research Laboratory, CNRS-Université Lyon 1-Nelson Mandela University, George Campus, Madiba Drive 6531, George, South Africa Sustainability Research Unit, Nelson Mandela University, George Campus, Madiba Drive, George, South Africa.
Jan A. Venter*
Affiliation:
Department of Conservation Management, Faculty of Science, George Camus, Nelson Mandela University, Madiba Drive, George, 6530 African Centre for Coastal Palaeoscience, Nelson Mandela University, PO Box 77000, Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape6031, South Africa. REHABS International Research Laboratory, CNRS-Université Lyon 1-Nelson Mandela University, George Campus, Madiba Drive 6531, George, South Africa
*
*Corresponding author email address:[email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Herbivore distribution throughout Africa is strongly linked to mean annual precipitation. We use that relationship to predict functional group composition of herbivore communities during the last glacial maximum (ca. 21 ka) on the now submerged Palaeo-Agulhas Plain (PAP), South Africa. We used metabolic large herbivore biomass (MLHB) from 39 South African protected areas, in five functional groups (characterized by behavior and physiology). We examined how modern factors influenced MLHB and considered the effects of biome, annual rainfall, percentage winter rainfall, and protected area size. Overall, biome was the most important factor influencing the relationship between MLHB and rainfall. In general, MLHB increased with rainfall, but not for the grassland biome. Outside grasslands, most functional groups’ metabolic biomass increased with increasing rainfall, irrespective of biome, except for medium-sized social mixed feeder species in savanna and thicket. Protected area size was influential for medium-sized social mixed feeders and large browsers and rainfall influenced medium-sized social mixed feeders, offering some perspectives on spatial constraints on past large herbivore biomass densities. These results improve our understanding of the likely herbivore community composition and relative biomass structure on the PAP, an essential driver of how early humans utilized large mammals as a food resource.

Keywords

Metabolic biomassFunctional groupLast glacial maximumProtected areasEnvironmental drivers
Type
Research Article
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 104 , November 2021 , pp. 136 - 150
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © University of Washington. Published by Cambridge University Press, 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Archibald, S., Bond, W.J., Stock, W.D., Fairbanks, D.H.K., 2005. Shaping the landscape: fire-grazer interactions in an African savanna. Ecological Applications 15, 96–109. https://doi.org/10.1890/03-5210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, D.W., Gross, J.E., Laca, E.A., Rittenhouse, L.R., Coughenour, M.B., Swift, D.M., Sims, P.L., 1996. Mechanisms that result in large herbivore grazing distribution patterns. Journal of Range Management 49, 386–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakker, E.S., Gill, J.L., Johnson, C.N., Vera, F.W.M., Sandom, C.J., Asner, G.P., Svenning, J.-C., 2016. Combining paleo-data and modern exclosure experiments to assess the impact of megafauna extinctions on woody vegetation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, 847–855. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1502545112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bartoń, K., 2020. Package “MuMIn” Multi-Model Inference, version 1.43.17. https://ftp://xyz.csail.mit.edu/pub/CRAN/web/packages/MuMIn/MuMIn.pdf.Google Scholar
Bell, R.H.V., 1982. The effect of soil nutrient availability on community structure in African ecosystems. In: Huntley, B.J., Walker, B.F. (Eds.), Ecology of Tropical Savannas. Springer, New York, pp. 193–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-68786-0_10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boshoff, A.F., Kerley, G.I.H., Cowling, R.M., 2002. Estimated spatial requirements of the medium- to large-sized mammals, according to broad habitat units, in the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. African Journal of Range and Forage Science 19, 29–44. https://doi.org/10.2989/10220110209485772.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bothma, J.D.P., 2010. Harvesting wild animals. In: Bothma, J.D.P., du Toit, J.G. (Eds.), Game Ranch Management. Van Schaik Publishers, Pretoria, South Africa, pp. 482–503.Google Scholar
Bradshaw, P.L., Cowling, R.M., 2014. Landscapes, rock types, and climate of the greater Cape Floristic Region. In: Allsopp, N., Colville, J.F., Verboom, G.A. (Eds.), Fynbos: Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation of a Megadiverse Region. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 26–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carruthers, J., 2008. “Wilding the farm or farming the wild”? The evolution of scientific game ranching in South Africa from the 1960s to the present. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 63, 160–181. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC91951.Google Scholar
Cawthra, H.C., Cowling, R.M., Andò, S., Marean, C.W., 2020. Geological and soil maps of the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain for the Last Glacial Maximum. Quaternary Science Reviews 235, 105858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.07.040.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, J.M., Leibold, M.A., Downing, A.L., Shurin, J.B., 2000. The effects of productivity, herbivory and plant species turnover in grassland food webs. Ecology 81, 2485–2497. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[2485:TEOPHA]2.0.CO;2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chevalier, M., Chase, B.M., 2016. Determining the drivers of long-term aridity variability: a southern African case study. Journal of Quaternary Science 31, 143–151. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jqs.2850.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coe, M.J., Cumming, D.H., Phillipson, J., 1976. Biomass and production of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production. Oecologia 22, 341–354. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00345312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Copeland, S.R., Cawthra, H.C., Fisher, E.C., Lee-Thorp, J.A., Cowling, R.M., Le Roux, P.J., Hodgkins, J., Marean, C.W., 2016. Strontium isotope investigation of ungulate movement patterns on the Pleistocene Paleo-Agulhas plain of the Greater Cape floristic region, South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews 141, 65–84. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.04.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowling, R.M., Potts, A.J., Franklin, J., Marean, C.W., 2020. Describing a drowned Pleistocene ecosystem: Last Glacial Maximum vegetation reconstruction of the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain. Quaternary Science Reviews 235, 105866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.105866.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cromsigt, J.P.G.M., Prins, H.H.T., Olff, H., 2009. Habitat heterogeneity as a driver of ungulate diversity and distribution patterns: interaction of body mass and digestive strategy. Diversity and Distributions 15, 513–522. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00554.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demment, M.W., Van Soest, P.J., 1985. A nutritional explanation for body-size patterns of ruminant and nonruminant herbivores. American Naturalist 125, 641–672.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, P., Foose, T.J., Gordon, I.J., Gakahu, C.G., Lloyd, M., 1990. Comparative nutrient extraction from forages by grazing bovids and equids: a test of the nutritional model of equid/bovid competition and coexistence. Oecologia 84, 411–418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
du Toit, J.T., Owen-Smith, N., 1989. Body size, population metabolism, and habitat specialization among large African herbivores. American Naturalist 133, 736–740. https://doi.org/10.1086/284949CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engelbrecht, F.A., Marean, C.W., Cowling, R.M., Engelbrecht, C.J., Neumann, F.H., Scott, L., Nkoana, R., O'Neal, D., et al. , 2019. Downscaling Last Glacial Maximum climate over southern Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews 235, 105879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.105879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eronen, J.T., Puolamäki, K., Liu, L., Lintulaakso, K., Damuth, J., Janis, C., Fortelius, M., 2010. Precipitation and large herbivorous mammals I: estimates from present-day communities. Evolutionary Ecology Research 12, 217–233.Google Scholar
Estes, R.D., 2012. The Behavior Guide to African Mammals. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA.Google Scholar
Faith, J.T., Behrensmeyer, A.K., 2013. Climate change and faunal turnover: testing the mechanics of the turnover-pulse hypothesis with South African fossil data. Paleobiology 39, 609–627. https://doi.org/10.1666.12043.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faith, J.T., Braun, D.R., Davies, B., DeSantis, L.R.G., Douglass, M.J., Esteban, I., Hare, V., et al. , 2020. Ecometrics and the paleoecological implications of Pleistocene faunas from the western coastal plains of the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Journal of Quaternary Science 35, 1007–1020. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faith, J.T., Chase, B.M., Avery, D.M., 2019. Late Quaternary micromammals and the precipitation history of the southern Cape, South Africa. Quaternary Research 91, 729–750. https://doi.org/10.1017/qua.2018.105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, E.C., Bar-Matthews, M., Jerardino, A., Marean, C.W., 2010. Middle and late Pleistocene paleoscape modeling along the southern coast of South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews 29, 1382–1398. https://doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.01.015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fritz, H., Duncan, P., 1994. On the carrying capacity for large ungulates of African savanna ecosystems. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 256, 77–82. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1994.0052.Google ScholarPubMed
Fritz, H., Duncan, P., Gordon, I.J., Illius, A.W., 2002. Megaherbivores influence trophic guilds structure in African ungulate communities. Oecologia 131, 620–625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-002-0919-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fryxell, J.M., Sinclair, A.R.E., 1988. Causes and consequences of migration by large herbivores. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3, 237–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(88)90166-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fynn, R.W.S., 2012. Functional resource heterogeneity increases livestock and rangeland productivity. Range Ecology & Management 65, 319–329. https://doi.org/10.2111/REM-D-11-00141.1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grange, S., Duncan, P., 2006. Bottom-up and top-down processes in African ungulate communities: resources and predation acting on the relative abundance of zebra and grazing bovids. Ecography 29, 899–907. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2006.0906-7590.04684.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helm, C.W., Cawthra, H.C., Cowling, R.M., De Vynck, J.C., Lockley, M.G., Marean, C.W., Thesen, G.H.H., Venter, J.A., 2020. Pleistocene vertebrate tracksites on the Cape South Coast of South Africa and their potential palaeoecological implications. Quaternary Science Reviews 235, 105857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.07.039.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helm, C.W., McCrae, R.T., Lockley, M.G., Cawthra, H.C., Thesen, G.H.H., Mwankunda, J.M., 2018. Late Pleistocene vertebrate trace fossils in the Goukamma Nature Reserve, Cape South Coast, South Africa. Palaeontologia Africana 52, 89–101.http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/handle/10539/23736.Google Scholar
Hempson, G.P., Archibald, S., Bond, W.J., 2015a. A continent-wide assessment of the form and intensity of large mammal herbivory in Africa. Science 350, 1056–1061. https://doi.org/doi:10.1126/science.aac7978.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hempson, G P, Archibald, S., Bond, W.J., Ellis, R.P., Grant, C.C., Kruger, F.J., Kruger, L.M., et al. , 2015b. Ecology of grazing lawns in Africa. Biological Reviews 90, 979–994. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hijmans, R.J., 2020. Raster: Geographic data analysis and modeling. https://rdrr.io/cran/raster/.Google Scholar
Hodgkins, J., Marean, C.W., Venter, J.A., Richardson, L., Roberts, P., Zech, J., Difford, M., et al. , 2020. An isotopic test of the seasonal migration hypothesis for large grazing ungulates inhabiting the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain. Quaternary Science Reviews 235, 106221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopcraft, J.G.C., Anderson, T.M., Pérez-Vila, S., Mayemba, E., Olff, H., 2012. Body size and the division of niche space: food and predation differentially shape the distribution of Serengeti grazers. Journal of Animal Ecology 81, 201–213. https://doi.org/doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01885.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hopcraft, J.G.C., Olff, H., Sinclair, A.R.E., 2010. Herbivores, resources and risks: alternating regulation along primary environmental gradients in savannas. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25, 119–128. https://doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.08.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Illius, A.W., Duncan, P., Richard, C., Mesochina, P., 2002. Mechanisms of functional response and resource exploitation in browsing roe deer. Journal of Animal Ecology 71, 723–734.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Illius, A.W., Gordon, I.J., 1992. Modelling the nutritional ecology of ungulate herbivores: evolution of body size and competitive interactions. Oecologia 89, 428–434. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00317422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, O.R., Pilkington, J.G., Crawley, M.J., 2006. Distribution of a naturally fluctuating ungulate population among heterogeneous plant communities: ideal and free? Journal of Animal Ecology 75, 1387–1392. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2006.01163.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerley, G.I.H., Landman, M., De Beer, S., 2010. How do small browsers respond to resource changes? Dietary response of the Cape grysbok to clearing alien Acacias. Functional Ecology 24, 670–675. https://doi.org/doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01675.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerley, G.I.H., Pressey, R.L., Cowling, R.M., Boshoff, A.F., Sims-Castley, R., 2003. Options for the conservation of large and medium-sized mammals in the Cape Floristic Region hotspot, South Africa. Biological Conservation 112, 169–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3207(02)00426-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, R.G., 1972. The late Quaternary mammalian fauna of Nelson Bay Cave (Cape Province, South Africa): its implications for megafaunal extinctions and environmental and cultural change. Quaternary Research 2, 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(72)90034-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, R.G., 1983. Palaeoenvironmental implications of Quaternary large mammals in the Fynbos region. In: Deacon, H.J., Hendey, Q.B., Lambrechts, J.J.N. (Eds.), Fynbos Palaeoecology: A Preliminary Synthesis. Pretoria, Cooperative Scientific Programmes, pp. 116–138.Google Scholar
Klein, R.G., Cruz-Uribe, K., 1991. The bovids from Elandsfontein, South Africa, and their implications for the age, palaeoenvironment, and origins of the site. African Archaeological Review 9, 21–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01117215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraaij, T., Engelbrecht, F., Franklin, J., Cowling, R.M., 2020. A fiery past: a comparison of glacial and contemporary fire regimes on the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain, Cape Floristic Region. Quaternary Science Reviews 235, 106059. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.106059.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraaij, T., Novellie, P.A., 2010. Habitat selection by large herbivores in relation to fire at the Bontebok National Park (1974–2009): the effects of management changes. African Journal of Range & Forage Science 27, 21–27. https://doi.org/doi:10.2989/10220111003703450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levick, S.R., Asner, G.P., Kennedy-Bowdoin, T., Knapp, D.E., 2009. The relative influence of fire and herbivory on savanna three-dimensional vegetation structure. Biological Conservation 142, 1693–1700. https://doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.03.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luyt, J., Hare, V.J., Sealy, J., 2019. The relationship of ungulate δ13C and environment in the temperate biome of southern Africa, and its palaeoclimatic application. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 514, 282–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.10.016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandujano, S., Naranjo, E.J., 2010. Ungulate biomass across a rainfall gradient: a comparison of data from neotropical and palaeotropical forests and local analyses in Mexico. Journal of Tropical Ecology 26, 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266467409990411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marean, C.W., 1997. Hunter-gatherer foraging strategies in tropical grasslands: model building and testing in the East African Middle and Later Stone Age. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 16, 189–225. https://doi.org/10.1006/jaar.1997.0309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marean, C.W., 2016. The transition to foraging for dense and predictable resources and its impact on the evolution of modern humans. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 371, 20150239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marean, C.W., Cawthra, H.C., Cowling, R.M., Esler, K.J., Fisher, E., Milewski, A., Potts, A.J., Singels, E., De Vynck, J., 2014. Stone age people in a changing South African greater Cape Floristic Region. In: Allsopp, N., Colville, J.F., Verboom, A.J. (Eds.), Fynbos: Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation of a Megadiverse Region. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom, pp. 164–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marean, C.W., Cowling, R., Franklin, J., 2020. The Palaeo-Agulhas Plain: temporal and spatial variation in an extraordinary extinct ecosystem of the Pleistocene of the Cape Floristic Region. Quaternary Science Reviews 235, 106161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.106161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNaughton, S.J., Oesterheld, M., Frank, D.A., Williams, K.J., 1989. Ecosystem-level patterns of primary productivity and herbivory in terrestrial habitats. Nature 341, 142–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mills, M.G.L., Biggs, H.C., Whyte, I.J., 1995. The relationship between rainfall, lion predation and population trends in African herbivores. Wildlife Research 22, 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR9950075.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moen, J., Oksanen, L., 1991. Ecosystem trends. Nature 353, 510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mucina, L., Rutherford, M.C. (Eds.), 2006. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19, South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), Pretoria, South Africa.Google Scholar
Newmark, W.D., 2008. Isolation of African protected areas. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6, 321–328. https://doi.org/doi:10.1890/070003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olff, H., Ritchie, M.E., Prins, H.H.T., 2002. Global environmental controls of diversity in large herbivores. Nature 415, 901–904. https://doi.org/10.1038/415901a.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owen-Smith, N., 1977. On territoriality in ungulates and an evolutionary model. Quarterly Review of Biology 52, 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1086/409720.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pekor, A., Miller, J.R.B., Flyman, M.V., Kasiki, S., Kesch, M.K., Miller, S.M., Uiseb, K., van der Merve, V., Lindsey, P.A., 2019. Fencing Africa's protected areas: costs, benefits, and management issues. Biological Conservation 229, 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.10.030.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pretorius, Y., de Boer, W.F., Kortekaas, K., van Wijngaarden, M., Grant, R.C., Kohi, E.M., Mwakiwa, E., Slotow, R., Prins, H.H.T., 2016. Why elephant have trunks and giraffe long tongues: how plants shape large herbivore mouth morphology. Acta Zoologica 97, 246–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/azo.12121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prins, H.H.T., Olff, H., 1998. Species-richness of African grazer assemblages: towards a functional explanation. In: Newbery, D.M., Prins, H.H.T., Brown, N.D. (Eds.), 37th Symposium of the British Ecological Society: Dynamics of Tropical Communities. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, pp. 449–490.Google Scholar
QGIS Development Team, 2018. QGIS Geographic Information System. Open Source Geospatial Foundation. URL http://qgis.orgGoogle Scholar
Radloff, F.G.T., 2008. The Ecology of Large Herbivores Native to the Coastal Lowlands of the Fynbos Biome in the Western Cape, South Africa. D.Sc. dissertation, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 136 p.Google Scholar
Radloff, F.G.T., Mucina, L., Bond, W.J., le Roux, P.J., 2010. Strontium isotope analyses of large herbivore habitat use in the Cape Fynbos region of South Africa. Oecologia 146, 567–578. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-010-1731-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
R Core Team, 2018. R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org.Google Scholar
Rector, A.L., Reed, K.E., 2010. Middle and late Pleistocene faunas of Pinnacle Point and their paleoecological implications. Journal of Human Evolution 59, 340–357. https://doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rector, A.L., Verrelli, B.C., 2010. Glacial cycling, large mammal community composition, and trophic adaptations in the Western Cape, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 58, 90–102. https://doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.09.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynard, J.P., Wurz, S., 2020. The palaeoecology of Klasies River, South Africa: an analysis of the large mammal remains from the 1984–1995 excavations of Cave 1 and 1A. Quaternary Science Reviews 237, 106301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sealy, J., Naidoo, N., Hare, V.J., Brunton, S., Faith, J.T., 2020. Climate and ecology of the palaeo-Agulhas Plain from stable carbon and oxygen isotopes in bovid tooth enamel from Nelson Bay Cave, South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews 235, 105974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.105974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shipley, L.A., 1999. Grazers and browsers: how digestive morphology affects diet selection. In: Launchbaugh, K.L., Sanders, K.D., Mosley, J.C. (Eds.) Grazing Behaviour of Livestock and Wildlife. Idaho Forest, Wildlife and Range Expeditions Station Bulletin, University of Idaho, Moscow. pp. 20–27.Google Scholar
Sinclair, A.R.E., Mduma, S., Brashares, J.S., 2003. Patterns of predation in a diverse predator-prey system. Nature 425, 288–290. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01934.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stalmans, M.E., Witkowski, E.T.F., Balkwill, K., 2002. Evaluating the ecological relevance of habitat maps for wild herbivores. Journal of Range Management 55, 127–134. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/643637.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Andel, T.H., 1989. Late Pleistocene sea levels and the human exploitation of the shore and shelf of southern South Africa. Journal of Field Archaeology, v. 16, p. 133–155. https://doi.org/10.1179/jfa.1989.16.2.133.Google Scholar
Veldhuis, M.P., Kihwele, E.S., Cromsigt, J.P.G.M., Ogutu, J.O., Hopcraft, J.G.C., Owen-Smith, N., Olff, H., 2019. Large herbivore assemblages in a changing climate: incorporating water dependence and thermoregulation. Ecology Letters 22, 1536–1546. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Venter, J.A., Brooke, C.F., Marean, C.W., Fritz, H., Helm, C.W., 2020. Large mammals of the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain showed resilience to extreme climate change but vulnerability to modern human impacts. Quaternary Science Reviews 235, 106050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.106050.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Venter, J.A., Vermeulen, M.M., Brooke, C.F., 2019. Feeding ecology of large browsing and grazing herbivores. In: Gordon, I.J., Prins, H.H.T. (Eds.), The Ecology of Browsing and Grazing II. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 136–153.Google Scholar
Vogel, J.C., Fuls, A., Ellis, P.R., 1978. The geographical distribution of Kranz grasses in South Africa. South African Journal of Science 74, 209–215.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Brooke et al. supplementary material

Brooke et al. supplementary material

Download Brooke et al. supplementary material(File)
File 44.4 KB