Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T05:30:05.324Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reconstruction of a semi-arid late Pleistocene paleocatena from the Lake Victoria region, Kenya

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Emily J. Beverly ,
Steven G. Driese ,
Daniel J. Peppe ,
L. Nicole Arellano ,
Nick Blegen ,
J. Tyler Faith  and
Christian A. Tryon
Emily J. Beverly*
Affiliation:
Terrestrial Paleoclimatology Research Group, Department of Geology, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97354, Waco, TX 76798-7354, USA
Steven G. Driese
Affiliation:
Terrestrial Paleoclimatology Research Group, Department of Geology, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97354, Waco, TX 76798-7354, USA
Daniel J. Peppe
Affiliation:
Terrestrial Paleoclimatology Research Group, Department of Geology, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97354, Waco, TX 76798-7354, USA
L. Nicole Arellano
Affiliation:
Terrestrial Paleoclimatology Research Group, Department of Geology, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97354, Waco, TX 76798-7354, USA
Nick Blegen
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, U-2176, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
J. Tyler Faith
Affiliation:
School of Social Science, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
Christian A. Tryon
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Peabody Museum, 11 Divinity Ave., Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
*
*Corresponding author.Email Address:[email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The effect of changing environment on the evolution of Homo sapiens is heavily debated, but few data are available from equatorial Africa prior to the last glacial maximum. The Karungu deposits on the northeast coast of Lake Victoria are ideal for paleoenvironmental reconstructions and are best studied at the Kisaaka site near Karunga in Kenya (94 to > 33 ka) where paleosols, fluvial deposits, tufa, and volcaniclastic deposits (tuffs) are exposed over a ~ 2 km transect. Three well-exposed and laterally continuous paleosols with intercalated tuffs allow for reconstruction of a succession of paleocatenas. The oldest paleosol is a smectitic paleo-Vertisol with saline and sodic properties. Higher in the section, the paleosols are tuffaceous paleo-Inceptisols with Alfisol-like soil characteristics (illuviated clay). Mean annual precipitation (MAP) proxies indicate little change through time, with an average of 764 ± 108 mm yr− 1 for Vertisols (CALMAG) and 813 ± 182 to 963 ± 182 mm yr− 1 for all paleosols (CIA-K). Field observations and MAP proxies suggest that Karungu was significantly drier than today, consistent with the associated faunal assemblage, and likely resulted in a significantly smaller Lake Victoria during the late Pleistocene. Rainfall reduction and associated grassland expansion may have facilitated human and faunal dispersals across equatorial East Africa.

Keywords

PaleosolsPaleoenvironmentKarunguSemi-aridPaleoclimateHuman evolution
Type
Articles
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 84 , Issue 3 , November 2015 , pp. 368 - 381
Copyright
University of Washington

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ambrose, S.H., and Lorenz, K.G. Social and ecological models for the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa. Mellars, P. The Emergence of Modern Humans: And Archaeological Perspective. (1990). Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. 3–33.Google Scholar
Angelucci, D.E. The recognition and description of knapped lithic artifacts in thin section. Geoarchaeology 25, (2010). 220–232.Google Scholar
Beckmann, G.G., Hubble, G.D., and Thompson, C.H. Gilgai forms, distribution and soil relationships in North-Eastern Australia. Proceedings of the Symposium on Soils and Earth Structures in Arid Climates; Adelaide, 21–22, May 1970 (1970). The Institution of Engineers, Australia. 116–121. (Adelaide)Google Scholar
Beckmann, G.G., Thompson, C.H., and Hubble, G.D. Linear gilgai. Australian Geographer 12, (1973). 363–366.Google Scholar
Bell, R.H.V. The use of the herb layer by grazing ungulates in the Serengeti. Watson, A. Animal Populations in Relation to their Food Resources. (1970). Blackwell, Oxford. 111–124.Google Scholar
Belsky, A.J. Tree/grass ratios in East African savannas: a comparison of existing models. Journal of Biogeography 17, (1990). 483–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J.A. Spatial and temporal landscape patterns in arid and semi-arid African savannas. Hansson, L., Fahrig, L., and Merriam, G. Mosaic Landscapes and Ecological Processes. (1995). Chapman & Hall, London. 31–56.Google Scholar
Berke, M.A., Johnson, T.C., Werne, J.P., Grice, K., Schouten, S., and Sinninghe Damsté, J.S. Molecular records of climate variability and vegetation response since the Late Pleistocene in the Lake Victoria basin, East Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews 55, (2012). 59–74.Google Scholar
Beverly, E.J., Driese, S.G., Peppe, D.J., Johnson, C.R., Michel, L.A., Faith, J.T., Tryon, C.A., and Sharp, W.D. Recurrent spring-fed rivers in a Middle to Late Pleistocene semi-arid grassland: implications for environments of early humans in the Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya. Sedimentology (2015). http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sed.12199 Google Scholar
Birkeland, P.W. Topography–soil relations with time in different climatic settings. Soils and Geomorphology. (1999). Oxford University Press, New York. 230–267.Google Scholar
Bishop, W.W., and Trendall, A.F. Erosion-surfaces, tectonics and volcanic activity in Uganda. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 122, (1967). 385–420.Google Scholar
Blegen, N., Tryon, C.A., Faith, J.T., Peppe, D.J., Beverly, E.J., Li, B., and Jacobs, Z. Distal tephras of the eastern Lake Victoria Basin, equatorial East Africa: correlations, chronology, and a context for early modern humans. Quaternary Science Reviews 122, (2015). 89–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blome, M.W., Cohen, A.S., Tryon, C.A., Brooks, A.S., and Russell, J. The environmental context for the origins of modern human diversity: a synthesis of regional variability in African climate 150,000–30,000 years ago. Journal of Human Evolution 62, (2012). 563–592.Google Scholar
Bootsma, H.A., and Hecky, R.E. A comparative introduction to the biology and limnology of the African Great Lakes. Journal of Great Lakes Research 29, (2003). 3–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brady, N.C., and Weil, R.R. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 14th ed. (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Brimhall, G.H., and Dietrich, W.E. Constitutive mass balance relations between chemical composition, volume, density, porosity, and strain in metasomatic hydrochemical systems: results on weathering and pedogenesis. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 51, (1987). 567–587.Google Scholar
Broecker, W.S., Peteet, D., Hajdas, I., Lin, J., and Clark, E. Antiphasing between rainfall in Africa's Rift Valley and North America's Great Basin. Quaternary Research 50, (1998). 12–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, F.H., McDougall, I., and Fleagle, J.G. Correlation of the KHS Tuff of the Kibish Formation to volcanic ash layers at other sites, and the age of early Homo sapiens (Omo I and Omo II). Journal of Human Evolution 63, (2012). 577–585.Google Scholar
Burt, R. Soil Survey Laboratory Information Manual: Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 45. (2011). USDA NRCS, Nebraska.Google Scholar
Caudill, M.R., Driese, S.G., and Mora, C.I. Preservation of a paleo-Vertisol and an estimate of Late Mississippian paleoprecipitation. Journal of Sedimentary Research 66, (1996). 58–70.Google Scholar
Chadwick, O.A., Brimhall, G.H., and Hendricks, D.M. From a black to a gray box — a mass balance interpretation of pedogenesis. Geomorphology 3, (1990). 369–390.Google Scholar
Cowling, S.A., Cox, P.M., Jones, C.D., Maslin, M.A., Peros, M., and Spall, S.A. Simulated glacial and interglacial vegetation across Africa: implications for species phylogenies and trans-African migration of plants and animals. Global Change Biology 14, (2008). 827–840.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crul, R.C.M. Limnology and hydrology of Lake Victoria. Comprehensive and Comparative Study of Great Lakes. (1995). UNESCO, 79 Google Scholar
Dagg, M., Woodhead, T., and Rijks, D.A. Evaporation in East Africa. Bulletin of the International Association of Scientific Hydrology 15, (1970). 61–67.Google Scholar
Doornkamp, J.C., and Temple, P.H. Surface, drainage and tectonic instability in part of southern Uganda. The Geographical Journal 132, (1966). 238–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Driese, S.G., Mora, C.I., Stiles, C.A., Joeckel, R.M., and Nordt, L.C. Mass-balance reconstruction of a modern Vertisol: implications for interpreting the geochemistry and burial alteration of paleo-Vertisols. Geoderma 95, (2000). 179–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Driese, S.G., Jacobs, J.R., and Nordt, L.C. Comparison of modern and ancient Vertisols developed on limestone in terms of their geochemistry and parent material. Sedimentary Geology 157, (2003). 49–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebinger, C.J. Tectonic development of the western branch of the East African rift system. GSA Bulletin 101, (1989). 885–903.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eriksson, A., Betti, L., Friend, A.D., Lycett, S.J., Singarayer, J.S., von Cramon-Taubadel, N., Valdes, P.J., Balloux, F., and Manica, A. Late Pleistocene climate change and the global expansion of anatomically modern humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109, (2012). 16089–16094.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faith, J.T. Ungulate diversity and precipitation history since the Last Glacial Maximum in the Western Cape, South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews 68, (2013). 191–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faith, J.T. Late Pleistocene and Holocene mammal extinctions on continental Africa. Earth-Science Reviews 128, (2014). 105–121.Google Scholar
Faith, J.T., Choiniere, J.N., Tryon, C.A., Peppe, D.J., and Fox, D.L. Taxonomic status and paleoecology of Rusingoryx atopocranion (Mammalia, Artiodactyla), an extinct Pleistocene bovid from Rusinga Island, Kenya. Quaternary Research 75, (2011). 697–707.Google Scholar
Faith, J.T., Potts, R., Plummer, T.W., Bishop, L.C., Marean, C.W., and Tryon, C.A. New perspectives on middle Pleistocene change in the large mammal faunas of East Africa: Damaliscus hypsodon sp. nov. (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from Lainyamok, Kenya. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 361–362, (2012). 84–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faith, J.T., Tryon, C.A., Peppe, D.J., Beverly, E.J., and Blegen, N. Biogeographic and evolutionary implications of an extinct Late Pleistocene impala from the Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya. Journal of Mammalian Evolution 21, (2014). 213–222.Google Scholar
Faith, J.T., Tryon, C.A., Peppe, D.J., Beverly, E.J., Blegen, N., Blumenthal, S., Chritz, K., Driese, S.G., and Patterson, D. Paleoenvironmental context of the Middle Stone Age record from Karungu, Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya, and its implications for human and faunal dispersal in East Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 83, (2015). 28–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faith, J.T., Tryon, C.A., and Peppe, D.J. Environmental change, ungulate biogeography, and their implications for early human dispersals in equatorial East Africa. Jones, S.C., and Stewart, B.A. Africa from MIS 6-2: Population Dynamics and Paleoenvironments. (2015). Springer, (in press)Google Scholar
Fey, M., Hughes, J., Lambrechts, J., and Dohse, T. Vertic soils. Soils of South Africa. (2010). Cambridge University Press, Cape Town, South Africa. 35–45.Google Scholar
Fillinger, U., Sonye, G., Killeen, G.F., Knols, B.G.J., and Becker, N. The practical importance of permanent and semipermanent habitats for controlling aquatic stages of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato mosquitoes: operational observations from a rural town in western Kenya. Tropical Medicine & International Health 9, (2004). 1274–1289.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, E.A. Soil Microscopy and Micromorphology. (1993). John Wiley & Sons, New York.Google Scholar
Garrett, N.D., Fox, D.L., McNulty, K.P., Tryon, C.A., Faith, J.T., Peppe, D.J., and Plantinga, A. Van Stable isotope paleoecology of Late Pleistocene Middle Stone Age humans from the equatorial East Africa, Lake Victoria basin, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 82, (2015). 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Google Earth, Rustenburg Linear Gilgai, 25°35′24.30″S, 27°15′11.49″E, elev 3636 ft, July 14, 2011. (2015). (Accessed January 20, 2015)Google Scholar
Hallsworth, E.G., and Beckman, G.G. Gilgai in the Quaternary. Soil Science 107, (1969). 409–420.Google Scholar
Hallsworth, E.G., Robertson, G.K., and Gibbons, F.R. Studies in pedogenesis in New South Wales. Journal of Soil Science 6, (1955). 1–31.Google Scholar
Johnson, R.W., and Tothill, J.C. Definitions and broad geographic outline of savanna lands. Tothill, J.C., and Mott, J.J. Ecology and management of the world's savannas. (1985). Australian Academy of Science, Canberra. 1–13.Google Scholar
Johnson, T.C., Scholz, C.A., Talbot, M.R., Kelts, K., Ricketts, R.D., Ngobi, G., Beuning, K.R., Ssemmanda, I., and McGill, J.W. Late Pleistocene dessication of Lake Victoria and rapid evolution of cichlid fishes. Science 273, (1996). 1091–1093.Google Scholar
Jongmans, A.G., van Oort, F., Buurman, P., Jaunet, A.M., and van Doesburg, J.D.J. Morphology, Chemistry, and Mineralogy of Isotropic Aluminosilicate Coatings in a Guadeloupe Andisol. Soil Science Society of America Journal 58, (1994). 501–507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jongmans, A.G., Pulleman, M.M., and Marinissen, J.C.Y. Soil structure and earthworm activity in a marine silt loam under pasture versus arable land. Biology and Fertility of Soils 33, (2001). 279–285.Google Scholar
Jungerius, P.D., Van Den Ancker, J.A.M., and Mucher, H.J. The contribution of termites to the microgranular structure of soils on the Uasin Gishu Plateau, Kenya. Catena 34, (1999). 349–363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendall, R.L. An ecological history of the Lake Victoria Basin. Ecological Monographs 39, (1969). 121–176.Google Scholar
Kent, P.E. The age and tectonic relationships of East African Volcanic Rocks. Geological Magazine 81, (1944). 15–27.Google Scholar
Kraus, M.J. Paleosols in clastic sedimentary rocks: their geologic applications. Earth-Science Reviews 47, (1999). 41–70.Google Scholar
Levin, N.E., Cerling, T.E., Passey, B.H., Harris, J.M., and Ehleringer, J.R. A stable isotope aridity index for terrestrial environments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103, (2006). 11201–11205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorenzen, E.D., Heller, R., and Siegismund, H.R. Comparative phylogeography of African savannah ungulates. Molecular Ecology 21, (2012). 3656–3670.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marbut, C.F. Atlas of American III. Soils of the United States. (1935). Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C..Google Scholar
McBrearty, S., and Brooks, A.S. The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 39, (2000). 453–563.Google Scholar
McDougall, I., Brown, F.H., and Fleagle, J.G. Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia. Nature 433, (2005). 733–736.Google Scholar
Milly, P.C.D. Comment on “Antiphasing between rainfall in Africa's Rift Valley and North America's Great Basin.”. Quaternary Research 51, (1999). 104–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milne, G. Natural erosion as a factor in soil profile development. Nature 138, (1936). 548–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, D.M., and Reynolds, R.C. X-Ray Diffraction and the Identification and Analysis of Clay Minerals. (1997). Oxford University Press, New York. 378 Google Scholar
Mora, C.I., and Driese, S.G. Palaeoclimatic significance and stable carbon isotopes of Palaeozoic red bed paleosols, Appalachian Basin, USA and Canada. Thiry, M., and Simon-Coinçon, R. Palaeoweathering, Palaeosurfaces and Related Continental Deposits. International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication No. 27 (1999). 61–84.Google Scholar
Nordt, L.C., and Driese, S.G. Hydropedological assessment of a vertisol climosequence on the Gulf Coast Prairie Land Resource Area of Texas. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 13, (2009). 2039–2053.Google Scholar
Nordt, L.C., and Driese, S.G. A modern soil characterization approach to reconstructing physical and chemical properties of paleo-Vertisols. American Journal of Science 310, (2010). 37–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nordt, L.C., and Driese, S.G. New weathering index improves paleorainfall estimates from Vertisols. Geology 38, (2010). 407–410.Google Scholar
Owen, W.E. Draft of tentative preliminary report on the July 1937 investigations at Ng'ira Karungu. Unpublished manuscript housed in the archives of the Natural History Museum, London. (1937). Google Scholar
Owen, W.E. The Kombewa Culture, Kenya Colony. Man 38, (1938). 203–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owen, W.E. An amateur field collector in Kavirondo, part II. Journal of the Royal African Society 38, (1939). 220–226.Google Scholar
Pickford, M.H. An aberrant new bovid (Mammalia) in subrecent deposits from Rusinga island, Kenya. Proceedings of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie Van Wetenschappen Series B: Palaeontology, Geology, Physics, Chemistry, Anthropology 87, (1984). 441–452.Google Scholar
Retallack, G.J. Soils of the Past: An Introduction to Paleopedology. 2nd ed. (2001). Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rito, T., Richards, M.B., Fernandes, V., Alshamali, F., Cerny, V., Pereira, L., and Soares, P. The first modern human dispersals across Africa. PLoS One 8, (2013). 1–16.Google Scholar
Scholz, C.A., Johnson, T.C., Cohen, A.S., King, J.W., Peck, J.A., Overpeck, J.T., Talbot, M.R., Brown, E.T., Kalindekafe, L., Amoako, P.Y., Lyons, R.P., Shanahan, T.M., Castaneda, I.S., Heil, C.W., Forman, S.L., McHargue, L.R., Beuning, K.R., Gomez, J., and Pierson, J. East African megadroughts between 135 and 75 thousand years ago and bearing on early-modern human origins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104, (2007). 16416–16421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheldon, N.D., and Tabor, N.J. Quantitative paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic reconstruction using paleosols. Earth-Science Reviews 95, (2009). 1–52.Google Scholar
Sheldon, N.D., Retallack, G.J., and Tanaka, S. Geochemical climofunctions from North America soils and applications to paleosols across the Eocene–Oligocene boundary in Oregon. Journal of Geology 110, (2002). 687–696.Google Scholar
Sinclair, A.R.E. The Serengeti Environment. Sinclair, A.R.E., and Norton-Griffiths, M. (1979). The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 31–45.Google Scholar
Soares, P., Alshamali, F., Pereira, J.B., Fernandes, V., Silva, N.M., Afonso, C., Costa, M.D., Musilova, E., Macaulay, V., Richards, M.B., Cerny, V., and Pereira, L. The expansion of mtDNA Haplogroup L3 within and out of Africa. Molecular Biology and Evolution 29, (2012). 915–927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soil Survey Staff, Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys. 2nd ed. (1999). USDA NRCS, Washington D.C..Google Scholar
Song, Y., Semazzi, F.H.M., Xie, L., and Ogallo, L.J. A coupled regional climate model for the Lake Victoria Basin of East Africa. International Journal of Climatology 24, (2004). 57–75.Google Scholar
Stager, J.C., and Johnson, T.C. The late Pleistocene desiccation of Lake Victoria and the origin of its endemic biota. Hydrobiologia 596, (2008). 5–16.Google Scholar
Stager, J.C., Mayewski, L., and Meeker, L.D. Cooling cycles, Heinrich event 1, and the desiccation of Lake Victoria. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 183, (2002). 169–178.Google Scholar
Stager, J.C., Ryves, D.B., Chase, B.M., and Pausata, F.S.R. Catastrophic drought in the Afro-Asian monsoon region during Heinrich Event 1. Science 331, (2011). 1299–1302.Google Scholar
Stoops, G. Guidelines for Analysis and Description of Soil and Regolith Thin Sections. (2003). Soil Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Stoops, G., Marcelino, V., and Mees, F. Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths. 1st ed. (2010). Elsevier, Netherlands.Google Scholar
Tabor, N.J., and Myers, T.S. Paleosols as indicators of paleoenvironment and paleoclimate. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 43, (2015). 11.1–11.29.Google Scholar
Talbot, M.R., and Laerdal, T. The late Pleistocene–Holocene palaeolimnology of Lake Victoria, East Africa, based upon elemental and isotopic analyses of sedimentary organic matter. Journal of Paleolimnology 23, (2000). 141–164.Google Scholar
Talbot, M.R., and Williams, M.A.J. Cenozoic evolution of the Nile Basin. Dumont, H.J. The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use. (2009). Springer Science + Business Media B.V, 37–60.Google Scholar
Tryon, C.A., and Faith, J.T. Variability in Middle Stone Age of Eastern Africa. Current Anthropology 54, (2013). S234–S254.Google Scholar
Tryon, C.A., Faith, J.T., Peppe, D.J., Fox, D.L., McNulty, K.P., Jenkins, K., Dunsworth, H., and Harcourt-Smith, W. The Pleistocene archaeology and environments of the Wasiriya Beds, Rusinga Island, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 59, (2010). 657–671.Google Scholar
Tryon, C.A., Peppe, D.J., Faith, J.T., Van Plantinga, A., Nightingale, S., Ogondo, J., and Fox, D.L. Late Pleistocene artefacts and fauna from Rusinga and Mfangano islands, Lake Victoria, Kenya, Azania. Archaeological Research in Africa 47, (2012). 14–38.Google Scholar
Tryon, C.A., Faith, J.T., Peppe, D.J., Keegan, W.F., Keegan, K.N., Jenkins, K.H., Nightingale, S., Patterson, D., Van Plantinga, A., Driese, S., Johnson, C.R., and Beverly, E.J. Sites on the landscape: paleoenvironmental context of late Pleistocene archaeological sites from the Lake Victoria basin, equatorial East Africa. Quaternary International 331, (2014). 20–30.Google Scholar
Ufnar, D. Clay coatings from a modern soil chronosequence: a tool for estimating the relative age of well-drained paleosols. Geoderma 141, (2007). 181–200.Google Scholar
Van Plantinga, A.A. Geology of the Late Pleistocene Artifact-bearing WAsiriya Beds at the Nyamita Locality, Rusinga Island, Kenya. (M.S. Thesis) (2011). Baylor Unviersity, Google Scholar
Vepraskas, M.J. Redoximorphic features for identifying aquic conditions. North Carolina Agricultural Research Service Technical Bulletin 301, (1992). (33 pp.)Google Scholar
Vepraskas, M.J. Morphological features of seasonally reduced soils. Richardson, J.L., and Vepraskas, M.J. Wetland Soils: Genesis, Hydrology, Landscapes, and Classification. (2001). Lewis Publishers, New York. 163–182.Google Scholar
Vepraskas, M.J., and Faulkner, S.P. Redox chemistry of hydric soils. Richardson, J.L., and Vepraskas, M.J. Wetland Soils: Genesis, Hydrology, Landscapes, and Classification. (2001). Lewis Publishers, New York. 85–105.Google Scholar
Verster, E., de Villiers, J.M., and Scheepers, J.C. Gilgai in the Rustenburg area. Agrochemophysica 4, (1973). 57–62.Google Scholar
Vesey-Fitzgerald, D. East African Grasslands. (1973). East African Publishing House, Nairobi.Google Scholar
Wynn, J.G. Paleosols, stable carbon isotopes, and paleoenvironmental interpretation of Kanapoi, Northern Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 39, (2000). 411–432.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Beverly et al. supplementary material

Table S1

Download Beverly et al. supplementary material(File)
File 58.3 KB
Supplementary material: File

Beverly et al. supplementary material

Table S2

Download Beverly et al. supplementary material(File)
File 91.7 KB