Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T06:39:45.690Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Geochemical gradients and artifact mass densities on the lowermost Bed II eastern lake margin (~ 1.8 Ma), Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Daniel M. Deocampo  and
Joanne C. Tactikos
Daniel M. Deocampo*
Affiliation:
Department of Geosciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
Joanne C. Tactikos
Affiliation:
Archaeological Consulting Service, Tempe, AZ, USA
*
*Corresponding author. Department of Geosciences, Georgia State University, PO Box 4105, Atlanta, GA 30302-4105, USA. Fax: + 1 404 413 5768. E-mail address:[email protected] (D.M. Deocampo).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Bulk geochemistry of ~ 1.8 Ma lacustrine claystone at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, is controlled principally by the geochemistry of ultrafine (< 0.1 μm), authigenic clay minerals. Authigenic clays have an average structural formula of (Si3.83Al0.17)(Al0.43Fe0.49Mg0.84)(Na0.99K0.22Ca0.16)O10(OH)2; octahedral composition varies, with Mg/(Al + Fe) ranging from 0.7 to 2.3. These clay minerals have a complex history of interaction with saline, alkaline water, followed by secondary diagenetic reactions that leached Mg in freshwater paleoenvironments. Lateral variations in whole-rock and clay geochemistry show westward enrichment in Mg, from Mgoct = 0.6–1.6. This is consistent with persistence of saline, alkaline Paleolake Olduvai to the west, and the presence of groundwater wetlands and other freshwater paleoenvironments to the east. Stone artifact mass density also varies systematically across the basal Bed II deposits, ranging from 100.0 to 104.3 g of artifacts per cubic meter of excavated sediment. Significant correlation is found between clay geochemistry and the density of artifacts excavated from associated archeological trenches (r2 = 0.59, p < 0.01). This relationship supports models of hominin land use in which artifact use and discard is concentrated near freshwater paleoenvironments such as wetlands associated with surface and groundwater discharge. Independent paleoenvironmental proxies such as clay geochemistry allow quantitative hypothesis testing to improve our understanding of early hominin behavior and paleoecology.

Keywords

OlduvaiHomininPleistoceneClay mineralDiagenesisLimnogeology
Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 74 , Issue 3 , November 2010 , pp. 411 - 423
Copyright
University of Washington

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ashley, G.M. Orbital rhythms, monsoons, and playa lake response, Olduvai Basin, equatorial East Africa (ca. 1.85–1.74 Ma). Geology 35, (2007). 1091–1094.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashley, G.M., and Driese, S.G. Paleopedology and paleohydrology of a volcaniclastic paleosol interval: implications for early Pleistocene stratigraphy and paleoclimate record, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Journal of Sedimentary Research 70, (2000). 1065–1080.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashley, G.M., and Liutkus, C.M. Tracks, trails, and trampling by large vertebrates in a rift valley paleo-wetland, lowermost Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Ichnos 9, (2002). 23–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashley, G.M., Tactikos, J., and Owen, R. Hominin use of springs and wetlands: paleoclimate and archaeological records from Olduvai Gorge (~ 1.79–1.74 Ma). Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 272, (2009). 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, B.H. Tectonics and volcanism of the southern Kenya Rift Valley and its influence on rift sedimentation. Sedimentation in the African Rifts. Frostick, et al. Special Publication vol. 25, (1986). The Geological Society, London. 45–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bamford, M.K. Early Pleistocene fossil wood from Olduvai Gorge. Tanzania Quaternary International 129, (2005). 15–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bamford, M.K., Stanistreet, I.G., Stollhofen, H., and Albert, R.M. Late Pliocene grassland from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 257, (2008). 280–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banfield, J.F., Jones, B.F., and Veblen, D.R. An AEM–TEM study of weathering and diagenesis, Abert Lake, Oregon: I, weathering reactions in the volcanics. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 55, (1991). 2795–2810.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, P., Fontes, J.C., Gasse, F., and Druart, J.C. Experimental dissolution of diatom silica in concentrated salt solutions and implications for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Limnology and Oceanography 39, (1994). 99–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrensmeyer, A.K. Paleoenvironmental context of the Pliocene A.L. 333 “First Family” hominin locality, Hadar Formation, Ethiopia. Quade, J., and Wynn, J.G. The Geology of Early Humans in the Horn of Africa. Geological Society of America Special Paper vol. 446, (2008). 203–214. Google Scholar
Binford, L.R., (1967). Smudge pits and hide smoking: the use of analogy in archaeological reasoning. American Antiquity 32, 1–12.Google Scholar
Binford, L. Willow smoke and dogs' tails: hunter–gatherer settlement systems and archaeological site formation. American Antiquity 45, (1980). 4–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L. Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths. (1981). Academic Press, Orlando.Google Scholar
Binford, L. In Pursuit of the Past. (1983). Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Binford, L. Human ancestors: changing views of their behavior. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 4, (1985). 292–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L. Seeing the present and interpreting the past—and keeping things straight. Rossignol, J., and Wandsnider, L. Space, Time and Archaeological Landscapes. (1992). Plenum Press, New York. 43–59.Google Scholar
Blumenschine, R.J. Hominid carnivory, foraging strategies, and the socio-economic function of early archaeological sites. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 334, (1991). 211–221.Google ScholarPubMed
Blumenschine, R.J., and Marean, C.W. A carnivore's view of archaeological bone assemblages. Hudson, J. From Bones to Behavior: Ethnoarchaeological and Experimental Contributions to the Interpretations of Faunal Remains. CAI Occasional Paper No. 21 (1993). University of Southern Illinois Press, Carbondale. 273–300.Google Scholar
Blumenschine, R.J., and Masao, F.T. Living sites at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania? Preliminary landscape archaeology results in the basal Bed II lake margin zone. Journal of Human Evolution 21, (1991). 451–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blumenschine, R.J., and Peters, C.R. Archaeological predictions for hominid land use in the paleo-Olduvai Basin, Tanzania, during lowermost Bed II times. Journal of Human Evolution 34, (1998). 565–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blumenschine, R.J., Peters, C.R., Masao, F.T., Clarke, R.L., Deino, A.L., Hay, R.L., Swisher, C.C., Stanistreet, I.G., Ashley, G.M., McHenry, L.J., Sikes, N.E., van der Merwe, N.J., Tactikos, J.C., Cushing, A.E., Deocampo, D.M., Njau, J.K., and Ebert, J.I. Late Pliocene Homo and hominid land use from western Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Science 299, (2003). 1217–1221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blumenschine, R.J., Masao, F.T., Tactikos, J.C., and Ebert, J.I. Effects of distance from stone source on landscape-scale variation in Oldowan artifact assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science 35, (2008). 76–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunn, H.T. (1982). Meat-eating and human evolution: studies on the diet and subsistence patterns of Plio-Pleistocene hominids in East Africa. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Calvo, J.P., Blanc-Valleron, M.M., Rodrigues-Arandia, J.P., Rouchy, J.M., and Sanz, M.E. Authigenic clay minerals in continental evaporitic environments. Palaeoweathering, Palaeosurfaces and Related Continental Deposits. International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication vol. 27, (1999). 129–151.Google Scholar
Camilli, E.L., and Ebert, J.I. Artifact reuse and recycling in continuous surface distributions and implications for interpreting land use patterns. Rossignol, J., and Wandsnider, L. Space, Time, and Archaeological Landscapes. (1992). Plenum Press, New York. 113–136.Google Scholar
Campbell, I.D. Quaternary pollen taphonomy: examples of differential redeposition and differential preservation. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 149, (1999). 245–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Çolak, M., Helvaci, C., and Maggetti, M. Saponite from Emet Colemanite mines, Kütahya, Turkey. Clays and Clay Minerals 48, (2000). 409–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Copeland, S.R. Vegetation and plant food reconstruction of lowermost Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, using modern analogs. Journal of Human Evolution 53, (2007). 146–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
deMenocal, P.B. Plio-Pleistocene African climate. Science 270, (1995). 53–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
deMenocal, P.B. African climate change and faunal evolution during the Pliocene–Pleistocene. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 220, (2004). 3–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deocampo, D.M. Sedimentary structures generated by Hippopotamus amphibius in a lake-margin wetland, Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania. Palaios 17, (2002). 212–217.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deocampo, D.M. Sedimentary processes and lithofacies in lakemargin groundwater-fed wetlands in East Africa. Renaut, R.W., and Ashley, G.M. Sedimentation in Continental Rifts. SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) Special Publication vol. 73, (2002). 295–308.Google Scholar
Deocampo, D.M. Authigenic clays in East Africa: regional trends and paleolimnology at the Plio-Pleistocene boundary, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Journal of Paleolimnology 31, (2004). 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deocampo, D.M. Evaporative evolution of surface waters and the role of aqueous CO2 in magnesium silicate precipitation: Lake Eyasi and Ngorongoro Crater, northern Tanzania. South African Journal of Geology 108, (2005). 493–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deocampo, D.M. The geochemistry of continental carbonates. Carbonates in Continental Settings: Geochemistry, Diagenesis, and Applications. Alonso-Zarza, , Tanner, Developments in Sedimentology vol. 62, (2010). Elsevier, 1–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deocampo, D.M., and Ashley, G.M. Siliceous islands in a carbonate sea: modern and Pleistocene records of spring-fed wetlands in Ngorongoro Crater and Oldupai Gorge, Tanzania. Journal of Sedimentary Research 69, (1999). 974–979.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deocampo, D.M., Blumenschine, R.J., and Ashley, G.M. Freshwater wetland diagenesis and traces of early hominids in the lowermost Bed II (1.8 Ma) playa lake-margin at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Quaternary Research 57, (2002). 271–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deocampo, D.M., Cuadros, J., Wing-Dudek, T., Olives, J., and Amouric, M. Saline lake diagenesis as revealed by coupled mineralogy and geochemistry of multiple ultrafine clay phases: Pliocene Olduvai Gorge. American Journal of Science 309, (2009). 834–868.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deocampo, D.M., Behrensmeyer, A.K., and Potts, R. Ultrafine clay minerals of the Pleistocene Olorgesailie Formation, Southern Kenya Rift: diagenesis and paleoenvironments of early hominins. Clays and Clay Minerals 58, (2010). 293–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., Mabulla, A., Bunn, H.T., Barba, R., Diez-Martín, F., Egeland, C.P., Espílez, E., Egeland, A., Yravedra, J., and Sánchez, P. Unraveling hominin behavior at another anthropogenic site from Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania): new archaeological and taphonomic research at BK, Upper Bed II. Journal of Human Evolution 57, (2009). 260–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ebert, J.I. Distributional Archaeology. (1992). University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. 2961 ppGoogle Scholar
Faith, J.T., Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., and Gordon, A.D. Long-distance carcass transport at Olduvai Gorge? A quantitative examination of Bed I skeletal element abundances. Journal of Human Evolution 56, (2009). 247–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernández-Jalvo, Y., Denys, C., Andrews, P., Williams, T., Dauphin, Y., and Humphrey, L. Taphonomy and paleoecology of Olduvai Bed-I (Pleistocene, Tanzania). Journal of Human Evolution 34, (1998). 137–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gifford-Gonzalez, D., (1991). Bones Are Not Enough: Analogues, Knowledge, and Interpretive Strategies in Zooarchaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 10, 215–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, R.L. Silicate reactions in three lithofacies of a semi-arid basin, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Morgan, B.A. Fiftieth Anniversary Symposia: Mineralogy and Petrology of the Upper Mantle. Sulfides, and Geochemistry of Non-marine Evaporites: Mineralogical Society of America Special Paper vol. 3, (1970). 237–255.Google Scholar
Hay, R.L. Geology of the Olduvai Gorge. (1976). University of California Press, Berkeley. 203 ppGoogle Scholar
Hay, R.L. Olduvai Gorge; a case history in the interpretation of hominid paleoenvironments in East Africa. Laporte, L.F. Establishment of a Geologic Framework for Paleoanthropology: Geological Society of America Special Paper vol. 242, (1990). 23–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, R.L., and Kyser, T.K. Chemical sedimentology and paleoenvironmental history of Lake Olduvai, a Pliocene lake in northern Tanzania. Geological Society of America Bulletin 113, (2001). 1505–1521.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hover, V.C., and Ashley, G.M. Geochemical signatures of paleodepositional and diagenetic environments: a STEM/AEM study of authigenic clay minerals from an arid rift basin, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Clays and Clay Minerals 51, (2003). 231–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaac, G.L. Traces of Pleistocene hunters: an East African example. Lee, R.B., and DeVore, I. Man the Hunter. (1968). Aldine, Chicago. 253–261.Google Scholar
Isaac, G.L. Food sharing and human evolution: archaeological evidence from the Plio-Pleistocene of East Africa. Journal of Anthropological Research 34, (1978). 311–325.Google Scholar
Isaac, G.L. The archaeological evidence for the activities of early African hominids. Jolly, C.J. Early Hominids of Africa. (1978). St. Martin's Press, New York. 219–254.Google Scholar
Isaac, G.L. Casting the net wide: a review of archaeological evidence for early hominid land-use and ecological relations. Current Argument on Early Man, Karlskoga, 1978. (1980). Pergamon Press, 226–251.Google Scholar
Isaac, G.L. Stone Age visiting cards; approaches to the study of early land use patterns. Hodder, I., Isaac, G.L., and Hammond, N.D.C. Patterns of the Past: Studies in Honour of David Clarke. (1981). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 131–155.Google Scholar
Isaac, G.L. Aspects of human evolution. Isaac, G.L. The Archaeology of Human Origins: Papers by Glynn Isaac. (1989). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 96–119.Google Scholar
Jochim, M.A. Hunter–Gatherer Subsistence and Settlement: A Predictive Model. (1976). Academic Press, New York. 206 ppGoogle Scholar
Jones, B.F. Clay mineral diagenesis in lacustrine sediments. Mumpton, F. Studies in Diagenesis. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin vol. 1578, (1986). 291–300.Google Scholar
Jones, B.F., and Deocampo, D.M. Geochemistry of saline lakes. Drever, J.I. Surface and Ground Water, Weathering, and Soils, Treatise on Geochemistry vol. 5, (2003). 393–424.Google Scholar
Kappelman, J., Plummer, T., Bishop, L., Duncan, A., and Appleton, S. Bovids as indicators of Plio-Pleistocene paleoenvironments in East Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 32, (1997). 229–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leakey, M.D. Olduvai Gorge. Excavations in Beds I and II, 1960–1963 Vol. 3, (1971). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.Google Scholar
Lee, R.B. (1965). Subsistence ecology of the !Kung Bushmen. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Lee, R.B., DeVore, I. (Editors), (1968). Man the Hunter. Aldine, Chicago., 415 pp.Google Scholar
Liutkus, C.M., and Ashley, G.M. Facies model of a semiarid freshwater wetland, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Journal of Sedimentary Research 73, (2003). 691–705.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McHenry, L.J., Mollel, G.F., and Swisher, C.C.I.I.I. Compositional and textural correlations between Olduvai Gorge Bed I tephra and volcanic sources in the Ngorongoro Volcanic Highlands, Tanzania. Quaternary International 178, (2008). 306–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mees, F., Stoops, G., Van Ranst, E., Paepe, R., and Van Overloop, E. The nature of zeolite occurrences in deposits of the Olduvai Basin, northern Tanzania. Clays and Clay Minerals 53, (2005). 659–673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mees, F., Segers, S., and Van Ranst, E. Palaeoenvironmental significance of the clay mineral composition of Olduvai basin deposits, northern Tanzania. Journal of African Earth Sciences 47, (2006). 39–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Millot, G. Geologie des argiles. (1964). Masson et Cie, Paris.Google Scholar
Mollel, G.F., Swisher, C.C. III, Feigenson, M.D., and Carr, M.J. Geochemical evolution of Ngorongoro Caldera, Northern Tanzania: implications for crust–magma interaction. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 271, (2008). 337–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, D.M., and Reynolds, R.C. X-ray Diffraction and the Identification and Analysis of Clay Minerals. (1997). Oxford Univ. Press, Google Scholar
Paquet, H., Duplay, J., Valleron-Blanc, M.M., and Millot, G. Octahedral composition of individual particles in smectite–palygorskite and smectite–sepiolite assemblages. Schultz, L.G., Van Olphen, H., and Mumpton, F.A. Proceedings of the International Clay Conference. Denver, 1985 (1987). The Clay Minerals Society, Bloomington, Indiana. 73–77.Google Scholar
Parkington, J. Seasonal mobility in the Late Stone Age. African Studies 31, (1972). 223–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, C.R., and Blumenschine, R.J. Landscape perspectives on possible land use patterns for Early Pleistocene hominids in the Olduvai Basin, Tanzania. Journal of Human Evolution 29, (1995). 321–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, C.R., and Blumenschine, R.J. Landscape perspectives on possible land use patterns for Early Pleistocene hominids in the Olduvai Basin, Tanzania: part II, expanding the landscape models. Kaupia 6, (1996). 175–221.Google Scholar
Plummer, T.W., and Bishop, L.C. Hominid paleoecology at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania as indicated by antelope remains. Journal of Human Evolution 27, (1994). 47–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts, R. Olorgesailie: new excavations and findings in Early and Middle Pleistocene contexts, southern Kenya rift valley. Journal of Human Evolution 18, (1989). 477–484.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts, R. Variables versus models of Early Pleistocene hominid land use. Journal of Human Evolution 27, (1994). 7–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts, R. Environmental hypotheses of hominin evolution. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 41, (1998). 93–136.3.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts, R., Behrensmeyer, A.K., and Ditchfield, P. Paleolandscape variation and Early Pleistocene hominid activities: Members 1 and 7, Olorgesailie Formation, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 37, (1999). 747–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quade, J., Mifflin, M.D., Pratt, W.L., McCoy, W., and Burckle, L. Fossil spring deposits in the southern Great Basin and their implications for changes in water-table levels near Yucca Mountain, Nevada, during Quaternary time. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 107, (1995). 213–230.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, M.J. Lithic analysis in landscape archaeology: evidence from East Turkana. Pwiti, G., and Soper, R. Aspects of African Archaeology, Papers from the 10th Congress of the Pan African Association for Prehistory and Related Studies. (1996). University of Zimbabwe Publications, Harare. 103–109.Google Scholar
Rogers, M.J., and Harris, J.W.K. Recent investigations in landscape archaeology at East Turkana. Nyame Akuma 38, (1992). 41–47.Google Scholar
Rogers, M.J., Feibel, C.S., and Harris, J.W.K. Changing patterns of land use by Plio-Pleistocene hominids in the Lake Turkana basin. Journal of Human Evolution 27, (1994). 139–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, M.R., Harris, J.W.K., and Feibel, C.S. (1994b). Changing patterns of land use???.Google Scholar
Schiffer, M.B. Behavioral Archaeology. (1976). Academic Press, New York. 222 ppGoogle Scholar
Schiffer, M.B. Behavior archaeology: first principles. Foundations in Archaeological Inquiry. (1995). University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. 289 pp.Google Scholar
Shipman, P., and Harris, J.M. Habitat Preference and Paleoecology of Australopithecus boisei in Eastern Africa, Evolutionary History of the “Robust” Australopithecines. (1988). Aldine de Gruyter, New York.Google Scholar
Sikes, N.E., and Ashley, G.M. Stable isotopes of pedogenic carbonates as indicators of paleoecology in the Plio-Pleistocene (upper Bed I), western margin of the Olduvai Basin, Tanzania. Journal of Human Evolution 53, (2007). 575–594.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sikes, N.E., Potts, R., and Behrensmeyer, A.K. Early Pleistocene habitat in Member 1 Olorgesailie based on paleosol stable isotopes. Journal of Human Evolution 37, (1999). 721–746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, A., and Stoffers, P. Clay mineral diagenesis in two East-African lake sediments. Clay Minerals 15, (1980). 291–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stern, N., (1994). The implications of time-averaging for reconstructing the land-use patterns of early tool-using hominids. Journal of Human Evolution 27, 89–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stern, N., (1995). The 'blu' tuff locality at Koobi Fora in northern Kenya: archaeological time and the record of past human behavior. The Artefact 18, 49–59.Google Scholar
Stoessell, R.K. 25 degrees C and 1 atm dissolution experiments of sepiolite and kerolite. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 52, (1988). 365–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoessell, R.K., and Hay, R.L. The geochemical origin of sepiolite & kerolite at Amboseli, Kenya. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 65, (1978). 255–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tactikos, J.C. (2005). A Landscape Perspective on the Oldowan from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation: Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. 284pp.Google Scholar
Thomas, D.H. Nonsite sampling in archaeology: up the creek without a site?. Mueller, J. Sampling in Archaeology. (1975). University of Arizona Press, Tucson. 61–81.Google Scholar
Tobias, P.V. The Skulls, Endocasts, and Teeth of Homo habilis, Olduvai Gorge Vol. 4, (1991). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.Google Scholar
Torrence, R. Time budgeting and hunter–gatherer technology. Bailey, G.N. Hunter–gatherer Economy in Prehistory: A European Perspective. New Directions in Archaeology (1983). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 11–22.Google Scholar
Wandsnider, L. Archaeological landscape studies. Rossignol, J., and Wandsnider, L. Space, Time, and Archaeological Landscapes. (1992). Plenum Press, New York. 285–292.Google Scholar
Winterhaulder, B. (1977). Foraging strategy adaptations of the boreal forest Cree: an evaluation of theory and models from evolutionary ecology. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornell University, .Google Scholar
Yellen, J.E. Archaeological Approaches to the Present: Models for Reconstructing the Past. (1977). Academic Press, New York. 259 ppGoogle Scholar