Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T15:27:30.820Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Age determination of glacially-transported boulders in Ireland and Scotland using Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating (SHD) and terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (TCN) exposure-age dating

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 May 2019

Peter Wilson Open the ORCID record for Peter Wilson [Opens in a new window] ,
Paul Dunlop ,
Chris Millar  and
Frances A. Wilson
Peter Wilson*
Affiliation:
School of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
Paul Dunlop
Affiliation:
Environmental Sciences Research Institute, School of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
Chris Millar
Affiliation:
Environmental Sciences Research Institute, School of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
Frances A. Wilson
Affiliation:
Swilly Park, Portstewart BT55 7FL, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
*
*Corresponding author at: School of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom. E-mail address: [email protected] (Peter Wilson).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating (SHD) was applied at 15 sites with glacially-transported granite boulders in parts of northern and western Ireland and southwest Scotland that had been exposed by retreat of the last British-Irish Ice Sheet (BIIS) or Younger Dryas (YD) ice masses. Seven of these surfaces had previously been dated using terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (TCN) exposure-age dating. Application of the granite calibration equation of Tomkins et al. (2018c) indicated a close correspondence between the SHD ages and the TCN ages (within 1σ or 2σ uncertainties). These findings demonstrate that SHD ages can be of comparable accuracy, precision, and reliability to TCN ages and are a strong argument for the more extensive use of SHD in some Quaternary dating projects. However, surface ages obtained by both SHD and TCN dating should not be accepted uncritically; they must be assessed in relation to the wider geological, geomorphological, and geochronological evidence. Evaluation of eight SHD ages, for which corresponding TCN ages are not available, indicate that most are consistent with current theory and field evidence, but some anomalous age estimates occur.

Keywords

Exposure-age datingGlacially-transported bouldersSchmidt hammerTerrestrial cosmogenic nuclidesBritish-Irish Ice Sheet
Type
Research Article
Information
Quaternary Research , Volume 92 , Issue 2 , September 2019 , pp. 570 - 582
Copyright
Copyright © University of Washington. Published by Cambridge University Press, 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

André, M-F., 2002. Rates of post-glacial rock weathering on glacially scoured outcrops (Abisko-Riksgränsen area, 68°N). Geografiska Annaler 84A, 139–150.Google Scholar
Applegate, P.J., Urban, N.M., Keller, K., Lowell, T.V., Laabs, B.J.C., Kelly, M.A., Alley, R.B., 2012. Improved moraine age interpretations through explicit matching of geomorphic process models to cosmogenic nuclide measurements from single landforms. Quaternary Research 77, 293–304.Google Scholar
Balco, G., 2011. Contributions and unrealized potential contributions of cosmogenic-nuclide exposure dating to glacier chronology, 1990–2010. Quaternary Science Reviews 30, 3–27.Google Scholar
Balco, G., Stone, J.O., Lifton, N.A., Dunai, T.J., 2008. A complete and easily accessible means of calculating surface exposure ages or erosion rates from 10Be and 26Al measurements. Quaternary Geochronology 3, 174–195.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C.K., 1986. Protalus rampart development and the limits of former glaciers in the vicinity of Baosbheinn, Wester Ross. Scottish Journal of Geology 22, 13–25.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C.K., McCarroll, D., Stone, J.O., 2006. Vertical dimensions and age of the Wicklow Mountains ice dome, eastern Ireland, and implications for the extent of the last Irish Ice Sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 2048–2058.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C.K., McCarroll, D., Stone, J.O., 2007. The Donegal ice dome, northwest Ireland: dimensions and chronology. Journal of Quaternary Science 22, 773–783.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C.K., McCarroll, D., Stone, J.O., 2011. Periglacial trimlines and the extent of the Kerry-Cork Ice Cap, SW Ireland. Quaternary Science Reviews 30, 3834–3845.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C.K., Ó Cofaigh, C., 2017. The last Irish Ice Sheet: extent and chronology. In: Coxon, P., McCarron, S., Mitchell, F. (eds), Advances in Irish Quaternary Studies. Atlantis Press, Paris, pp. 101–149.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C.K., Rinterknecht, V., Gheorghiu, D.M., 2013. Deglaciation chronology of the Galloway Hills Ice Centre, southwest Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science 28, 412–420.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C.K., Sandeman, G.F., Stone, J.O., Wilson, P., 2014a. Rock-slope failure following late Pleistocene deglaciation on tectonically stable mountainous terrain. Quaternary Science Reviews 86, 144–157.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C.K., Stone, J.O., 2015. Trimlines, blockfields and the vertical extent of the last ice sheet in southern Ireland. Boreas 44, 277–287.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C.K., Stone, J.O., Fifield, L.K., 2009. Glaciation and deglaciation of the SW Lake District, England: implications of cosmogenic 36Cl exposure dating. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 120, 139–144.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, C.K., Wilson, P., Gheorghiu, D., Rodés, Á., 2014b. Enhanced rock-slope failure following ice-sheet deglaciation: timing and causes. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 39, 900–913.Google Scholar
Barr, I., Roberson, S., Flood, R., Dortch, J., 2017. Younger Dryas glaciers and climate in the Mourne Mountains, Northern Ireland. Journal of Quaternary Science 32, 104–115.Google Scholar
Barr, I., Roberson, S., Wilson, P., 2016. The Annalong Valley. In: Roberson, S., Barr, I., Cooper, M. (Eds.), The Quaternary Glaciation of the Mourne Mountains: Field Guide. Quaternary Research Association, London, pp. 51–62.Google Scholar
Barth, A.M., Clark, P.U., Clark, J., Roe, G.H., Marcott, S.A., McCabe, A.M., Caffee, M.W., He, F., Cuzzone, J.K., Dunlop, P., 2018. Persistent millennial-scale glacier fluctuations in Ireland between 24 ka and 10 ka. Geology 46, 151–154.Google Scholar
Bevington, P.R., Robinson, D.K., 2003. Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physical Sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York.Google Scholar
Boelhouwers, J., Jager, D.F., De Joode, A., 1999. Application of relative-age dating methods to openwork debris flow deposits in the Cederberg Mountains, Western Cape, South Africa. South African Geographical Journal 81, 135–142.Google Scholar
Borchers, B., Marrero, S., Balco, G., Caffee, M., Goehring, B., Lifton, N., Nishiizumi, K., Phillips, F., Schaefer, J., Stone, J., 2016. Geological calibration of spallation production rates in the CRONUS-Earth project. Quaternary Geochronology 31, 188–198.Google Scholar
Chenet, M., Brunstein, D., Jomelli, V., Roussel, E., Rinterknecht, V., Mokadem, F., Biette, M., Robert, V., Léanni, L., ASTER team, 2016. 10Be cosmic-ray exposure dating of moraines and rock avalanches in the Upper Romanche valley (French Alps): evidence for two glacial advances during the Late Glacial/Holocene transition. Quaternary Science Reviews 148, 209–221.Google Scholar
Chiverrell, R.C., Smedley, R.K., Small, D., Ballantyne, C.K., Burke, M.J., Callard, S.L., Clark, C.D., et al. , 2018. Ice margin oscillations during deglaciation of the northern Irish Sea Basin. Journal of Quaternary Science 33, 739–762.Google Scholar
Çiner, A., Sarıkaya, M.A., Yıldırım, C., 2017. Misleading old age on a young landform? The dilemma of cosmogenic inheritance in surface exposure dating: moraines vs. rock glaciers. Quaternary Geochronology 42, 76–88.Google Scholar
Clark, J., McCabe, A.M., Bowen, D.Q., Clark, P.U., 2012. Response of the Irish Ice Sheet to abrupt climate change during the last deglaciation. Quaternary Science Reviews 35, 100–115.Google Scholar
Clark, J., McCabe, A.M., Schnabel, C., Clark, P.U., Freeman, S., Maden, C., Xu, S., 2009. 10Be chronology of the last deglaciation of County Donegal, northwestern Ireland. Boreas 38, 111–118.Google Scholar
Clark, P.U., McCabe, A.M., Mix, A., Weaver, A.J., 2004. Rapid rise of sea level 19,000 years ago and its global implications. Science 304, 1141–1144.Google Scholar
Clark, R., Wilson, P., 2004. A rock avalanche deposit in Burtness Comb, Lake District, northwest England. Geological Journal 39, 419–430.Google Scholar
Colhoun, E.A., 1981. A protalus rampart from the western Mourne Mountains, Northern Ireland. Irish Geography 14, 85–90.Google Scholar
Colman, S.M., 1981. Rock-weathering rates as functions of time. Quaternary Research 15, 250–264.Google Scholar
Colman, S.M., Dethier, D.P. (Eds.), 1986. Rates of Chemical Weathering of Rocks and Minerals. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.Google Scholar
Cook-Talbot, J.D., 1991. Sorted circles, relative-age dating and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction in an alpine periglacial environment, eastern Jotunheimen, Norway: lichenometric and weathering-based approaches. The Holocene 1, 128–141.Google Scholar
Cornish, R., 1981. Glaciers of the Loch Lomond Stadial in the western Southern Uplands of Scotland. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 92, 105–114.Google Scholar
Cullen, C., 2013. Deciphering the geomorphic and sedimentary record of the last Irish Ice Sheet in NW Donegal, Ireland: implications for glacial dynamics and decay configurations. Unpublished PhD thesis, National University of Ireland, Galway.Google Scholar
Darvill, C.M., 2013. Section 4.2.10: Cosmogenic nuclide analysis. In: Cook, S.J., Clarke, L.E., Nield, J.M. (Eds.), Geomorphological techniques (Online edition). British Society for Geomorphology, London.Google Scholar
Dawson, A., Matthews, J.A., Shakesby, R.A. 1986. A catastrophic landslide (Sturzstrom) in Verkilsdalen, Rondane National Park, Southern Norway. Geografiska Annaler 68A, 77–87.Google Scholar
Everest, J.D., Bradwell, T., Fogwill, C.J., Kubik, P.W., 2006. Cosmogenic 10Be age constraints for the Wester Ross Readvance moraine: insights into British Ice-Sheet behaviour. Geografiska Annaler 88A, 9–17.Google Scholar
Fabel, D., Ballantyne, C.K., Xu, S., 2012. Trimlines, blockfields, mountain-top erratics and the vertical dimensions of the last British-Irish Ice Sheet in NW Scotland. Quaternary Science Reviews 55, 91–102.Google Scholar
Finlayson, A., Merritt, J., Browne, M., Merritt, J., McMillan, A., Whitbread, K., 2010. Ice sheet advance, dynamics and decay configurations: evidence from west central Scotland. Quaternary Science Reviews 29, 969–988.Google Scholar
Glasser, N.F., Davies, J.R., Hambrey, M.J., Davies, B.J., Gheorghiu, D.M., Balfour, J., Smedley, R.K., Duller, G.A.T., 2018. Late Devensian deglaciation of south-west Wales from luminescence and cosmogenic isotope dating. Journal of Quaternary Science 33, 804–818.Google Scholar
Grämiger, L.M., Moore, J.R., Vockenhuber, C., Aaron, J., Hajdas, I., Ivy-Ochs, S., 2016. Two early Holocene rock avalanches in the Bernese Alps (Rinderhorn, Switzerland). Geomorphology 268, 207–221.Google Scholar
Hughes, P.D., Fink, D., Rodés, Á., Fenton, C.R., Fujioka, T., 2018. Timing of Pleistocene glaciations in the High Atlas, Morocco: new 10Be and 36Cl exposure ages. Quaternary Science Reviews 180, 193–213.Google Scholar
Hughes, P.D., Glasser, N.F., Fink, D., 2016. Rapid thinning of the Welsh Ice Cap at 20-19 ka based on 10Be ages. Quaternary Research 85, 107–117.Google Scholar
Kellerer-Pirklbauer, A., Wangensteen, B., Farbrot, H., Etzelmüller, B., 2008. Relative surface age-dating of rock glacier systems near Hólar in Hjaltadalur, northern Iceland. Journal of Quaternary Science 23, 137–151.Google Scholar
Kiernan, K., Fink, D., McConnell, A., 2017. Cosmogenic 10Be and 26Al exposure ages of glaciations in the Frankland Range, southwest Tasmania reveal a limited MIS-2 ice advance. Quaternary Science Reviews 157, 141–151.Google Scholar
Kirkbride, M.P., Winkler, S., 2012. Correlation of Late Quaternary moraines: impact of climate variability, glacier response and chronological resolution. Quaternary Science Reviews 46, 1–29.Google Scholar
Kłapyta, P., 2013. Application of Schmidt hammer relative age dating to Late Pleistocene moraines and rock glaciers in the western Tatra Mountains, Slovakia. Catena 111, 104–121.Google Scholar
Knight, J., Burningham, H., 2011. Boulder dynamics on an Atlantic-facing rock coastline, northwest Ireland. Marine Geology 283, 56–65.Google Scholar
Lal, D., 1991. Cosmic ray labelling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 104, 424–439.Google Scholar
Larsen, N.K., Linge, H., Håkansson, L., Fabel, D., 2012. Investigating the last deglaciation of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet in southwest Sweden with 10Be exposure dating. Journal of Quaternary Science 27, 211–220.Google Scholar
Marr, P., Winkler, S., Löffler, J. 2018. Investigations on blockfields and related landforms at Blåhø (Southern Norway) using Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating: palaeoclimatic and morphodynamic implications. Geografiska Annaler 100, 285–306.Google Scholar
Marrero, S., Phillips, F.M., Borchers, B., Lifton, N., Aumer, R., Balco, G., 2016. Cosmogenic nuclide systematics and the CRONUScalc program. Quaternary Geochronology 31, 160–187.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., McEwen, L.J., 2013. High-precision Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating of flood berms, Vetlestølsdalen, Alpine southern Norway: first application and some methodological issues. Geografiska Annaler 95A, 185–195.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., McEwen, L.J., Owen, G., 2015. Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating (SHD) of snow-avalanche impact ramparts in southern Norway: approaches, results and implications for landform age, dynamics and development. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 40, 1705–1718.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., Nesje, A., Linge, H., 2013. Relict talus-foot rock glaciers at Øyberget, Upper Ottadalen, southern Norway: Schmidt hammer exposure ages and palaeoenvironmental implications. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 24, 336–346.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., Shakesby, R.A., 1984. The status of the ‘Little Ice Age’ in southern Norway: relative-age dating of Neoglacial moraines with Schmidt hammer and lichenometry. Boreas 13, 333–346.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., Shakesby, R.A., Owen, G., Vater, A.E., 2011. Pronival rampart formation in relation to snow-avalanche activity and Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating (SHD): three case studies from southern Norway. Geomorphology 130, 280–288.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., Wilson, P., 2015. Improved Schmidt-hammer exposure ages for active and relict pronival ramparts in southern Norway, and their palaeoenvironmental implications. Geomorphology 246, 7–21.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., Wilson, P., Mourne, R.W., 2017. Landform transitions from pronival ramparts to moraines and rock glaciers: a case study from the Smørbotn cirque, Romsdalsalpane, southern Norway. Geografiska Annaler 99A, 15–37.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., Winkler, S., 2011. Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating (SHD): application to early Holocene moraines and a reappraisal of the reliability of terrestrial cosmogenic-nuclide dating (TCND) at Austanbotnbreen, Joutunheimen, Norway. Boreas 40, 256–270.Google Scholar
Matthews, J.A., Winkler, S., Wilson, P., Tomkins, M.D., Dortch, J.M., Mourne, R.W., Hill, J.L., Owen, G., Vater, A.E., 2018. Small rock-slope failures conditioned by Holocene permafrost degradation: a new approach and conceptual model based on Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating, Jotunheimen, southern Norway. Boreas 47, 1144–1169.Google Scholar
McCarroll, D., 1989. Potential and limitations of the Schmidt hammer for relative-age dating: field tests on Neoglacial moraines, Joutunheimen, southern Norway. Arctic and Alpine Research 21, 268–275.Google Scholar
McCarroll, D., Ballantyne, C.K., Nesje, A., Dahl, S-O., 1995. Nunataks of the last ice sheet in northwest Scotland. Boreas 24, 305–323.Google Scholar
Nicholson, D., 2008. Rock control on microweathering of bedrock surface in a periglacial environment. Geomorphology 101, 655–665.Google Scholar
Owen, G., Hiemstra, J.F., Matthews, J.A., McEwen, L.J., 2010. Landslide-glacier interaction in a neoparaglacial setting at Tverrbytnede, Joutunheimen, southern Norway. Geografiska Annaler 92A, 421–436.Google Scholar
Owen, G., Matthews, J.A., Albert, P.G., 2007. Rates of Holocene chemical weathering, ‘Little Ice Age’ glacial erosion and implications for Schmidt-hammer dating at a glacier-foreland boundary, Fåbergstølsbreen, southern Norway. The Holocene 17, 829–834.Google Scholar
Principato, S.M., Geirsdóttir, Á., Jóhannsdóttir, G.E., Andrews, J.T., 2006. Late Quaternary glacial and deglacial history of eastern Vestfirdir, Iceland using cosmogenic isotope (36Cl) exposure ages and marine cores. Journal of Quaternary Science 21, 271–285.Google Scholar
Proceq, 2006. Operating instructions (Betonprüfhammer N/NR-L/LR). Proceq SA, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Rode, M., Kellerer-Pirklbauer, A., 2012. Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating (SHD) of rock glaciers in the Schöderkogel-Eisenhut area, Schladminger Tauern Range, Austria. The Holocene 22, 761–771.Google Scholar
Romundset, A., Akçar, N., Fredin, O., Tikhomirov, D., Reber, R., Vockenhuber, C., Christl, M., Schlüchter, C., 2017. Lateglacial retreat chronology of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet in Finnmark, northern Norway, reconstructed from surface exposure dating of major end moraines. Quaternary Science Reviews 177, 130–144.Google Scholar
Sánchez, J.S., Mosquera, D.F., Romaní, J.R.V., 2009. Assessing the age-weathering correspondence of cosmogenic 21Ne dated Pleistocene surface by the Schmidt Hammer. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 34, 1121–1125.Google Scholar
Sanhueza-Pino, K., Korup, O., Hetzel, R., Munack, H., Weidinger, J.T., Dunning, S., Ormukov, C., Kubik, P.W., 2011. Glacial advances constrained by 10Be exposure dating of bedrock landslides, Kyrgyz Tien Shan. Quaternary Research 76, 295–304.Google Scholar
Schiele, K., 2017. Timing, forcing and onshore-offshore correlations on the western margin of the British-Irish Ice Sheet. Unpublished DPhil thesis, Ulster University.Google Scholar
Schleier, M., Hermanns, R.L., Rohn, J., Gosse, J.C., 2015. Diagnostic characteristics and paleodynamics of supraglacial rock avalanches, Innerdalen, western Norway. Geomorphology 245, 23–39.Google Scholar
Schmidt, S., Hetzel, R., Kuhlmann, J., Mingorance, F., Ramos, V.A., 2011. A note of caution on the use of boulders for exposure dating of depositional surfaces. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 302, 60–70.Google Scholar
Shakesby, R.A., Matthews, J.A., Karlén, W., Los, S.O., 2011. The Schmidt hammer as a Holocene calibrated-age dating technique: testing the form of the R-value-age relationship and defining the predicted age errors. The Holocene 21, 615–628.Google Scholar
Shakesby, R.A., Matthews, J.A., Owen, G., 2006. The Schmidt hammer as a relative-age dating tool and its potential for calibrated-age dating in Holocene glaciated environments. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 2846–2867.Google Scholar
Sjöberg, R., Broadbent, N., 1991. Measurement and calibration of weathering, using the Schmidt hammer, on wave washed moraines on the upper Norrland coast, Sweden. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 16, 57–64.Google Scholar
Small, D., Clark, C.D., Chiverrell, R.C., Smedley, R.K., Bateman, M.D., Duller, G.A.T., Ely, J.C., Fabel, D., Medialdea, A., Moreton, S.G., 2017. Devising quality assurance procedures for assessment of legacy geochronological data relating to deglaciation of the last British-Irish Ice Sheet. Earth-Science Reviews 164, 232–250.Google Scholar
Small, D., Fabel, D., 2016. Response to Bromley et al. “Comment on ‘Was Scotland deglaciated during the Younger Dryas?’ by Small and Fabel (2016).” Quaternary Science Reviews 152, 206–208.Google Scholar
Southall, D., Wilson, P., Dunlop, P., Schnabel, C., Rodés, Á., Gulliver, P., Xu, S., 2017. Age evaluation and causation of rock-slope failures along the western margin of the Antrim Lava Group (ALG), Northern Ireland, based on cosmogenic isotope (36Cl) surface exposure dating. Geomorphology 285, 235–246.Google Scholar
Stahl, T., Winkler, S., Quigley, M., Bebbington, M., Duffy, B., Duke, D., 2013. Schmidt hammer exposure-age dating (SHD) of late Quaternary fluvial terraces in New Zealand. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 38, 1838–1850.Google Scholar
Stone, J.O., 2000. Air pressure and cosmogenic isotope production. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 105, 23753–23759.Google Scholar
Sutton, B., 1998. Glacial landforms and sedimentology, and Late Pleistocene evolution of the Mourne Mountains, Northern Ireland. Unpublished DPhil thesis, University of Ulster.Google Scholar
Tomkins, M.D., Dortch, J.M., Hughes, P.D., 2016. Schmidt Hammer exposure dating (SHED): establishment and implications for the retreat of the last British Ice Sheet. Quaternary Geochronology 33, 46–60.Google Scholar
Tomkins, M.D., Dortch, J.M., Hughes, P.D., Huck, J.J., Stimson, A.G., Delmas, M., Calvet, M., Pallàs, R., 2018a. Rapid age assessment of glacial landforms in the Pyrenees using Schmidt hammer exposure dating (SHED). Quaternary Research 90, 26–37.Google Scholar
Tomkins, M.D., Dortch, J.M., Hughes, P.D., Huck, J.J., Tonkin, T.N., Barr, I.D., 2018b. Timing of glacier retreat in the Wicklow Mountains, Ireland, conditioned by glacier size and topography. Journal of Quaternary Science 33, 611–623.Google Scholar
Tomkins, M.D., Huck, J.J., Dortch, J.M., Hughes, P.D., Kirkbride, M.P., Barr, I.D., 2018c. Schmidt Hammer exposure dating (SHED): calibration procedures, new exposure age data and an online calculator. Quaternary Geochronology 44, 55–62.Google Scholar
Tye, A., Stahl, T., 2018. Field estimate of paleoseismic slip on a normal fault using the Schmidt hammer and terrestrial LiDAR: methods and application to the Hebgen fault (Montana, USA). Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 43, 2397–2408.Google Scholar
Watson, J.E., Brooks, S.J., Whitehouse, N.J., Reimer, P.J., Birks, H.J.B., Turney, C., 2010. Chironomid-inferred late-glacial summer air temperatures from Lough Nadourcan, Co. Donegal, Ireland. Journal of Quaternary Science 25, 1200–1210.Google Scholar
White, K., Bryant, R., Drake, N., 1998. Techniques for measuring rock weathering: application to a dated fan segment sequence in southern Tunisia. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 23, 1031–1043.Google Scholar
Wilson, K.R., 2004. The Last Glaciation in the western Mourne Mountains, Northern Ireland. Scottish Geographical Journal 120, 199–210.Google Scholar
Wilson, P., 2004. Evidence for and reconstruction of a Nahanagan Stade glacier at Croloughan Lough, Derryveagh Mountains, Co. Donegal. Irish Journal of Earth Sciences 22, 45–54.Google Scholar
Wilson, P., 2007. The Kirkby Fell rock-slope failure, Malham, Yorkshire Dales. North West Geography 7, 1–9.Google Scholar
Wilson, P., 2009. Storurdi: a late Holocene rock-slope failure (sturzstrom) in the Jotunheimen, southern Norway. Geografiska Annaler 91A, 47–58.Google Scholar
Wilson, P., Ballantyne, C.K., Benetti, S., Small, D., Fabel, D., Clark, C.D., 2019. Deglaciation chronology of the Donegal Ice Centre, northwest Ireland. Journal of Quaternary Science 34, 16–28.Google Scholar
Wilson, P., Lord, T., Rodés, A., 2013. Deglaciation of the eastern Cumbria glaciokarst, northwest England, as determined by cosmogenic nuclide (10Be) surface exposure dating, and the pattern and significance of subsequent environmental changes. Cave and Karst Science 40, 22–27.Google Scholar
Wilson, P., Matthews, J.A., 2016. Age assessment and implications of late Quaternary periglacial and paraglacial landforms on Muckish Mountain, northwest Ireland, based on Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating (SHD). Geomorphology 270, 134–144.Google Scholar
Wilson, P., Matthews, J.A., Mourne, R.W., 2017. Relict blockstreams at Insteheia, Valldalen-Tafjorden, southern Norway: their nature and Schmidt-hammer exposure age. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 28, 286–297.Google Scholar
Wilson, P., Rodés, Á., Smith, A., 2018. Valley glaciers persisted in the Lake District, northwest England, until ~16-15 ka as revealed by terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (10Be) dating: a response to Heinrich event 1? Journal of Quaternary Science 33, 518–526.Google Scholar
Winkler, S., 2005. The Schmidt hammer as a relative-age dating technique: potential and limitations of its application on Holocene moraines in Mt Cook National Park, Southern Alps, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 48, 105–116.Google Scholar
Winkler, S., 2009. First attempt to combine terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (10Be) and Schmidt hammer relative-age dating: Strauchon Glacier, Southern Alps, New Zealand. Central European Journal of Geosciences 1, 274–290.Google Scholar
Winkler, S., 2014. Investigation of late-Holocene moraines in the western Southern Alps, New Zealand, applying Schmidt-hammer exposure-age dating. The Holocene 24, 48–66.Google Scholar
Winkler, S., Lambiel, C., 2018. Age constraints of rock glaciers in the Southern Alps/New Zealand – exploring their palaeoclimatic potential. The Holocene 28, 778–790.Google Scholar
Winkler, S., Matthews, J.A., Mourne, R.W., Wilson, P., 2016. Schmidt-hammer exposure ages from periglacial patterned ground (sorted circles) in Jotunheimen, Norway, and their interpretative problems. Geografiska Annaler 98A, 265–285.Google Scholar