Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T19:50:00.814Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Recent advances and applications of diffuse X-ray small-angle scattering on biopolymers in dilute solutions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 March 2009

O. Kratky
Affiliation:
Institut für Röntgenfeinstrukturforschung Graz, Austria
I. Pilz
Affiliation:
Institut für physikalische Chemie, der Universität Graz, Graz, Austria

Extract

In all scattering phenomena the scattering angles are inversely related to the dimensions of the scattering particles. As macromolecules are giant compared with the normally used CuKα wavelength λ = 1·54 Å, we find the scattering of the particle as a whole at Correspondingly small angles.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1972

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, L. E. (1969). X-ray diffraction methods. Polymer Sci. U.S.S.R. p. 62. New York, London, Sydney, Toronto: Wiley-Interscience, John Wiley & Sons Inc.Google Scholar
Anderegg, J. W. (1967). X-ray scattering from small RNA viruses in solution. In Small Angle X-Ray Scattering (ed. Brumberger, H.), p. 243. New York, London, Paris: Gordon and Breach.Google Scholar
Beeman, W. W. (1967). Some experimental procedures and recent results on liquids, solutions and globular proteins. In Small Angle X-Ray Scattering (ed. Brumberger, H.), p. 197. New York, London, Paris: Gordon and Breach.Google Scholar
Beeman, W. W., Kaesberg, P., Anderegg, J. W. & Webb, M. B. (1957). Size of particles and lattice defects. Handb. Phys. 32, 364.Google Scholar
Beidl, G., Bischof, G., Glatz, G., Porod, G. v., Sacken, J. Cu. & Wawra, H. (1957). Zur Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung und Lichstreung verdünnter kolloider Systeme. Streukurven regelmässiger Körper. Z. Elektrochem. 61, 1311.Google Scholar
Bielig, H.-J., Kratky, O., Rohns, G. & Wawra, H. (1966). Small-angle scattering of Apoferritin in solution. Biochim. biophys. Acta 112, 110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonse, U. & Hart, M. (1967). A new tool for small-angle X-ray scattering and X-ray spectroscopy: the multiple reflection diffractometer. In Small Angle X-Ray Scattering (ed. Brumberger, H.), p. 121. New York, London, Paris: Gordon and Breach.Google Scholar
Bram, S. (1971 a). The secondary structure of DNA in solutions and in nucleohistone. J. Molec. Biol. 58, 277.Google Scholar
Bram, S. (1971 b). On the polymorphism of DNA in solution. First European Biophysics Congress, vol. I, p. 373. Wien: Verlag der Wiener Medizinischen Akademie.Google Scholar
Bram, S. & Beeman, W. W. (1971). On the cross-section structure of deoxyribonucleic acid in solution. J. Molec. Biol. 55, 311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bram, S. & Ris, H. (1971). On the structure of nucleohistone. J. Molec. Biol. 55, 325.Google ScholarPubMed
Brumberger, H. (1968). Small-Angle Scattering. New York, London, Paris: Gordon and Breach.Google Scholar
Cohen, G. & Eisenberg, H. (1968). Deoxyribonucleate solutions: Sedimentation in a density gradient, partial specific volumes, density and refractive index increments and preferential interactions. J. Polym. Sci. D 6, 1077.Google Scholar
Connors, P., Labanauskas, M. & Beeman, W. W. (1969). Structural studies on transfer RNA: The molecular conformation in solution. Science, N.Y. 166, 1528.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conrad, H., Mayer, A., Schwaiger, S. & Schneider, R. (1969 a). Kleinwinkelstreuung mit Röntgenstrahlen an Hämoglobin und dessen iso-lierte Untereinheiten in wässeriger Lösung. Hoppe-Seyler's Z. physiol. Chem. 350, 845.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conrad, H., Mayer, A., Thomas, H. P. & Vogel, H. (1969 b). X-ray small- angle scattering from aqueous solutions of oxy- and deoxyhaemoglobin. J. Molec. Biol. 41, 225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damaschun, G. (1965). Zur Kollimation der Röntgenstrahlen unter Ausnützung der Totairefiexion: III. Z. Exp. Techn. Physik 13, 224.Google Scholar
Damaschun, G., Kley, G., Müller, J. J. & Pürschel, H. V. (1968 a). Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung von aus Subeinheiten aufgebauten Objekten. Acta biol. med. germ. 20, 409.Google Scholar
Damaschun, G., Kley, G. & Müller, J. J. (1968 b). Über eine RöntgenKleinwinkelkamera nach Kratky mit Totalreflexions-monochromator. Acta phys. austriaca 28, 233.Google Scholar
Damaschun, G. & P¨rschel, H. V. (1968 c). Die Ermittlungen der Abmessungen gelöster Makromoleküle aus Röntgenkleinwinkeldiagrammen mittels Charakteristikfiächen. Acta biol. med. germ. 21, 401, 567.Google Scholar
Damaschun, O. & Pürschel, H. V. (1969). Die Bestimmung des mittleren Elektronenabstandes ā von in Lösung befindlichen Makromolek¨len aus Röntgen-Kleinwinkeldiagrammen. Mh. Chem. 100, 510.Google Scholar
Damaschun, G. & Pörschel, H. V. (1970). Charakteristiklänge lc, mittlere Durchschusslänge dc und Charakteristikvolumen vc. Acta biol. med. germ. 24, 65.Google ScholarPubMed
Damaschun, G. & P¨rschel, H. V. (1971). Berechnung von unverschmierten und spaltverschmierten Röntgen-Kleinwinkelstreukurven. Mh. Chem. 102, 1146.Google Scholar
Durschlag, H., Puchwein, G., Kratky, O., Schuster, I. & Kirschner, K. (1971). X-ray small-angle scattering of yeast glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase as a function of saturation with nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide. Eur. J. Biochem. 19, 9.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, H. & Cohen, G. (1968). An interpretation of the low-angle Xray scattering of DNA solutions. J. Molec. Biol. 37, 355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Federov, B. A. (1971). Application of the Hankel transform method in small- angle X-ray scattering for the study of internal structure of tobacco mosaic virus. Acta Crystallogr. A 27, 35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Federov, B. A. & Aleshin, F. V. G. (1967). Theory of low-angle X-ray scattering by long rigid macromolecules in solution. Polym. Sci. U.S.S.R. 8, 1657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischbach, F. A., Harrison, P. M. & Anderegg, J. W. (1965). An X-ray scattering study of the bacterial virus R 17. J. Molec. Biol. 13, 638.Google Scholar
Glatter, O. (1972). Thesis. Universität Graz.Google Scholar
Grivoryev, A. I., Volkova, L. A. & Ptitsyn, O. B. (1971). Identification of the secondary structure of polypeptide chains in solution by X-ray diffusion scattering. FEBS Lett. 14, 189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guinier, A. & Fournet, G. In Small Angle Scattering of X-rays. New York: J. Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman & Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haager, O. (1972). Berechnung der Röntgenkleinwinkelstreukurven von Modellen, die aus dreiachsigen Körpern zusammengesetzt sind. Thesis, Universität Graz.Google Scholar
Hamilton, L. D., Fuller, W. & Reich, E. (1963). X-ray diffraction and molecular model building studies of the interaction of actinomycin with nucleic acids. Nature (Lond.) 198, 538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heine, S. (1963). Die Entschmierung von Röntgen-Kleinwinkel-Streukurven mit einer elektronischen Rechenanlage. Acta phys. austriaca 16, 144.Google Scholar
Heine, S. & Roppert, J. (1962). Die Behandlung des Problems der Entschmierung von Röntgen-Kleinwinkel-Streukurven mittels einer elektronischen Rechenanlage. Acta phys. austriaca 15, 148.Google Scholar
Hendricks, J. W. (1972). Two modifications of the KRATKY small-angle X-ray camera. (Submitted to J. appi. Crystallogr.)Google Scholar
Hill, W. E., Thompson, J. D. & Anderegg, J. W. (1969). X-ray scattering study of ribosomes from Escherichia coli. J. Molec. Biol. 44. 89CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hossfeld, F. (1968). The correction of resolution errors in small-angle scattering using hermite functions. Acta crystallogr. A 24, 643.Google Scholar
Hyman, A. & Vaughan, P. A. (1967). In Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (ed. Brumberger, H.), p. 477. New York, London, Paris: Gordon and Reach.Google Scholar
Kirste, R. G., Schulz, G. V. & Stuhrmann, H. B. (1969). Die Konformationsänderung des Pottwal-Mesmyoglobins bei der reversiblen Denaturierung im pH-Bereich 7 bis 1. Z. Naturf. 24 b, 1385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirste, R. G. & Stuhrmann, H. B. (1967). Elimination der intrapartikulären Untergrundstreuung bei Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung an kompakten Teilchen. III. Verifizierung an Lösungen von Myoglobin. Z. phys. Chem. Neue Folge 56, 338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kranjc, K. AA theoretical possibility of correcting the collimation error in small-angle X-ray scattering. Acta crystallogr. 7, 709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kratky, O. (1954). Neues Verfahren zur Herstellung von blendenstreuungsfreien Röntgen-Kleinwinkelaufnahmen. Z. Elektrochem. 58, 49.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. (1956). Bestimmung der Gestalt von korpuskularen und fadenformigen Makromolekülen nach der Röntgen-Kleinwinkelmethode. Z. Elektrochem. 60, 245.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. (1958). Neues Verfahren zur Herstellung von blendenstreuungsfreien Röntgenkleinwinkelaufnahmen: IV. Z. Elektrochem. 62, 66.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. (1960). Ergebnisse der Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung bei der Bestimmung der Grösse und Gestalt von Makromolekülen in Lösung. Makromolek. Chem. 35A, 12.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. (1963). X-ray small angle scattering with substances of biological interest in diluted solutions. Frog. Biophys. biophys. Chem. 13, 105.Google ScholarPubMed
Kratky, O. (1964). Die Messung der Absolutintensität der diffusen Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung – ein Verfahren zur ‘Wägung’ in makromolekularen Systemen. Z. analyt. Chem. 201, 161.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. (1968). Adaption of the technique of diffuse small-angle X-ray scattering to extreme demands. In Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (ed. Brumberger, H.), p. 63. New York, London, Paris: Gordon and Breach.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. & Leopold, H. (1970). A comparison between the Bonse—Hart and the block collimation system. Makromolek. Chem. 133, 181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kratky, O., Leopold, H., Pilz, I. & Seidler, H.-P. (1971). RöntgenKleinwinkelkamera mit Monitor. Z. angew. Phys. 31, 49.Google Scholar
Kratky, O., Pilz, I. & Schmitz, P. J. (1966). Absolute intensity measurement of small angle X-ray scattering by means of a standard sample. J. Colloid & Interface Sci. 21, 24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kratky, O. & Porod, G. (1948). Die Abhängigkeit der Röntgen-Kleinwinkelstreuung von Form und Grösse der kolloiden Teilchen in verdünnten Systemen: III. Acta physica austriaca 2, 133.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. & Porod, G. (1949). Diffuse small-angle scattering of X-rays in colloid systems. J. Colloid Sci. 4, 35.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. & Porod, G. (1953). Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung von makromolekularen Lösungen. In Die Physik der Hochpolymeren vol. II (ed. Stuart, H. A.), p. 515. Berlin, Göttingen, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Kratky, O., Porod, G. & Kahovec, L. (1951). Einige Neuerungen in der Technik und Auswertung von Röntgen-Kleinwinkelmessungen. Z. Elektrochem. angew. phys. Chem. 5, 53.Google Scholar
Kratky, O., Porod, G., Sekora, A. & Paletta, B. (1955). Determination of the shape of gamma-globulin by means of the X-ray low-angle method. J. Polym. Sci. 16, 163.Google Scholar
Kratky, O., Porod, G. & Skala, Z. (1960). Verschmierung und Entschmierung bei Röntgenkleinwinkelaufnahmen. Ada physica austriaca 13, 76.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. & Skala, Z. (1958). Neues Verfahren zur Herstellung von blendenstreuungsfreien Röntgenkleinwinkelaufnagmen. V. Beschreibung eines Modells der U-Kamera. Z. Elektrochem. 62, 73.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. & Wawra, H. (1963). Messungen der Absolutintensität der diffusen Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung durch mechanische Schwächung des Primärstrahls bei Anwendung der Impulszähltechnik. Mh. Chem. 94, 981.Google Scholar
Kratky, O. & Wrentschur, E. (1972). Vergleich der Intensitätsausbeute des Graphitmonochromators und des Impulshöhendiskriminators bei Röntgenkleinwinkelmessungen. (Submitted to Z. angew. Phys.)Google Scholar
Krigbaum, W. R. & Godwin, R. W. (1968). Molecular conformation of chymotrypsinogen and chimotrypsin by low-angle X-ray diffraction. Biochemistry, N.Y. 7, 3126.Google Scholar
Krigbaum, W. R. & Kügler, F. R. (1970). Molecular conformation of eggwhite lysozyme and bovine α-lactalbumin in solution. Biochemistry, N. Y. 9, 1216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krivacic, J. & Rupley, J. A. (1968). Comparison of protein structure in the crystal and in solution. VI. Volume change in the crystallization of the horse methemoglobin. J. Molec. Biol. 35, 483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lake, J. A. (1967). An iterative method of slit correcting small-angle X-ray data. Acta crystallogr. 23, 191.Google Scholar
Luzzati, V. (1960). Interpretation des mesures absolues de diffusion centrale des rayons X en collimation ponctuelle ou lineaire: solutions de particules globulaires et de batonnets. Acta crystallogr. 13, 939.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luzzati, V. (1963). Small angle X-ray scattering on an absolute scale. In X-Ray Optics and X-Ray Microanalysis, p. 33. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Luzzati, V., Masson, F., Mathis, A. & Saludjian, P. (1967 a). Etude par diffusion centrale des rayons X, des polyelectrolytes rigides en solution. Cas des sels de Li, Na et Cs du DNA. J. Polym. Sci. D 5, 491.Google Scholar
Luzzati, V., Witz, J. & Mathis, A. (1967 b). The structure of nucleic acids in solution, as determined by X-ray scattering techniques: DNA, RNA, poly A. In Genetic Elements (ed. Shugar, D.), p. 41. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Miller, A. & Schmidt, P. W. (1962). Small angle X-ray scattering from randomly oriented cylinders of arbitrary cross section. J. mathem. Phys. 3, 92.Google Scholar
Mittelbach, P. (1964). Zur Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung verdünnter kolloider Systeme: VIII. Acta phys. austriaca 19, 53.Google Scholar
Mittelbach, P. & Porod, G. (1961 a). Die Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung verdünnter kolloider Systeme. Die Berechnung der Streukurven von Parallelepipeden. Acta phys. austriaca 14, 18.Google Scholar
Mittelbach, P. & Porod, G. (1961 b). Die Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung verdünnter kolloider Systeme. VI. Die Berechnung der Streukurven von elliptischen Zylindern und Hohizylindern. Acta phys. austriaca 14, 405.Google Scholar
Mittelbach, P. & Porod, G. (1962). Zur Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung verd¨nnter kolloider System. VII. Die Berechnung der Streukurven von dreiachsigen Ellipsoiden. Acta phys. austriaca 15, 122.Google Scholar
Mittelbach, P. & Porod, G. (1965). Zur Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung kolloider Systeme. Die mittleren Durchschusslängen und die Kohärenzlänge eines kolloiden Systems; Kennzahlen zur Ermittlung von Teilchenform und Polydispersität. Kolloidzeitschrzft 202, 40.Google Scholar
M¨ller, W. & Crothers, D. M. (1968). Studies of the binding of actinomycin and related compounds to DNA. J. molec. Biol. 35, 251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ninio, J. (1971). Etude de la structure de l'arn de transfert par diffusion centrale des rayons X, et de ses implications biologiques. Thesis, University of Paris.Google Scholar
Ninio, J., Favre, A. & Yanio, M. (1969). Molecular model for transfer RNA. Nature, Lond. 223, 1333.Google Scholar
Perret, R. & Ruland, W. (1971). Glassy carbon as standard for the normalization of small-angle scattering intensities. Internal report of ‘Union Carbide European Research Associates S.A., 95 rue Gatti de Gamond, 1180 Bruxelles, Belgium’.Google Scholar
Pilz, I. (1969). Absolute intensity measurement of small-angle X-ray scattering by means of a standard sample: III. J. Colloid & Interface Sci. 30, 140.Google Scholar
Pilz, I. (1970). Bildung und Struktur der Antikörper. Allgem. u. prakt. Chemie 21, 21.Google Scholar
Pilz, I., Glatter, O. & Kratky, O. (1972 b). Röntgenkleinwinkelstudien über die Substruktur von Helix pomatia Hämocyanin. Z. Naturf. 27 b, 518.Google Scholar
Pilz, I. & Kratky, O. (1967). Absolute intensity measurement of small-angle X-ray scattering by means of a standard sample: II. J. Colloid & Interface Sci. 24, 211.Google Scholar
Pilz, I., Kratky, O., Cramer, F., Haar, F. V. D. & Schlimme, E. (1970 a). On the conformation of phenylalanine specific transfer RNA. Eur. J. Biochem. 15, 401.Google Scholar
Pilz, I., Kratky, O., Haar, F. V. D. & Cramer, F. (1971). Influence of counterions on the radius of gyration of phenylalanine specific transfer RNA as determined by small angle X-ray studies. Eur. J. Biochem. 18, 436.Google Scholar
Pilz, I., Kratky, O. & Moring-Claesson, I. (1970 b). Röntgenkleinwinkelstudien an verdünnten Lösungen von helix pomatia hemocyanin. Z. Naturf. 25 b, 600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pilz, I., Kratky, O. & Rabussay, D. (1972 a). Studies on the conformation of DNA-dependent RNA-polymerase in solution by small angle X-raymeasurements. Eur. J. Biochem. 28, 205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pilz, I., Puchwein, C., Kratky, O., Herbst, M., Haager, O., Gall, W. E. & Edelman, G. M. (1970 c). Small angle X-ray scattering of a homogeneous γG1 immunoglobulin. Biochemistry, N.Y. 9, 211.Google Scholar
Porod, G. (1948). Die Abhängigkeit der Röntgen-Kleinwinkelstreuung von Form und Grösse der kolloiden Teilchen in verdünnten Systemen: IV. Acta phys. austriaca 2, 255.Google Scholar
Porod, G.Theorie der diffusen Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung an kolloiden Systemen. Z. Naturf. 6, 401.Google Scholar
Porod, G. (1951). Die Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung von dichtgepackten kolloiden Systemen: I. Kolloidzeitschzft 124, 83.Google Scholar
Porod, G. (1952). Die Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung von dichtgepackten kolloiden Systemen: II. Kolloidzeitschrift 125, 51.Google Scholar
Rothwell, S. W. (1968). Small angle X-ray scattering from glassy carbon. J. appl. Phys. 39, 1840.Google Scholar
Rupley, J. A. (1968). Comparison of protein structure in the crystal and in solution. IV. Protein solubility. J. molec. Biol. 35, 455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rupley, J. A. & Gates, V. (1968). Comparison of protein structure in the crystal and in solution. V. Solubility of horse methemoglobin and azide binding. J. molec. Biol. 35, 477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarma, R., Silverson, E. W., Davies, D. R. & Terry, W. D. (1971). Three-dimensional structure at 6 Å resolution of a human γG1-immunoglobulin molecule. J. biol. Chem. 246, 3753.Google Scholar
Schelten, J. & Hossfeld, F. (1971). Application of spline functions to the correction of resolution errors in small-angle scattering. J. appl. Crystallogr. 4, 210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, P. W. (1965 a). Collimation corrections in small-angle X-ray scattering. Acta crystallogr. 19, 938.Google Scholar
Schmidt, P. W. (1965 b). Asymptotic expansion of the intensity of the small- angle X-ray scattering from cylinders of arbitrary cross-section. J. math. Phys. 6, 424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, P. W. & Hight, R. JrCalculation of the intensity of small- angle X-ray scattering at relatively large scattering angles. J. appl. Phys. 30, 866.Google Scholar
Schmidt, P. W. & Hight, R. Jr (1960). Slit height corrections in small angle X-ray scattering. Acta crystallogr. 13, 480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, R., Mayer, A., Eicher, H., Stöckel, P., Schmatz, W. & Schelten, J. (1970). Methode zur Elimination des Lösungsmittelstreuanteils bei der Röntgen – und Neutronen-Kleinwinkelstreuung Verifiziert an Hämoglobinlösungen. Hoppe-Seyler's Z. Physiol. Chem. 351, 1499.Google Scholar
Schneider, R., Mayer, A., Schmatz, W., Schelten, J., Franzel, R. & Eicher, H. (1971). X-Ray and neutron small-angle scattering from hemoglobin in aqueous solution and in crystal. Eur. J. Biochem. 20, 179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strobl, G. R. (1970). A new method for evaluating slit smeared small-angle X-ray scattering data. Acta crystallogr. A 26, 367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuhrmann, H. B. & Kirste, R. G. (1965). Elimination der intrapartikulären Untergrundstreuung bei der Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung an kompakten Teilchen (Proteinen). Z. phys. Chem., Neue Folge 46, 247.Google Scholar
Stuhrmann, H. B. & Kirste, R. G. (1967). Elimination der intrapartikulären Untergrundstreuung bei der Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung an kompakten Teilchen: II. Z. physik. Chem., Neue Folge 56, 333.Google Scholar
Sund, H., Pilz, I. & Herbst, M. (1969). Studies of glutamate dehydrogenase. 5. The X-ray small-angle investigation of beef liver glutamate dehydrogenase. Eur. J. Biochem. 7, 517.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vonk, C. G. (1971). A procedure for desmearing X-ray small-angle scattering curves. J. appl. crystallogr. 4, 340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, H. C., (1967). Myoglobin: Low angle X-ray scattering properties as calculated from the known structure. In Small Angle X-Ray Scattering (ed. Brumberger, H.), p. 267. New York, London, Paris: Gordon and Breach.Google Scholar
Wawra, H., Muller, W. & Kratky, O. (1970). Die Wechselwirkung der Desoxyrinobucleinsäure mit dem Actinomin nach Röntgenkleinwinkelmessungen. Makromolek. Chem. 139, 83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witz, J. (1969). Focusing monochromators. Acta Cryst. A 25, 30.Google Scholar
Zipper, P., Kratky, O., Herrmann, R. & Hohn, T. (1971). An X-ray small angle study of the bacteriophages fr and R 17. Eur. J. Biochem. 18, 1.Google Scholar
Zipper, P., Kratky, O., Buneman, H. & Müller, W. (1972). A small angle X-Ray scattering study on the interaction of actinomycin C3 with deoxyribonucleic acid from calf thymus. Febs Lett. 25, 123.Google Scholar