To estimate the prevalence of frequent milk consumption (≥five times/week), the consumption of low-fat/skimmed milk and associated factors in adults and older people, evaluating adherence to current Brazilian guideline.

Population-based cross-sectional study involving the analysis of data from the 2015 Campinas Food Intake and Nutritional Status and 2015 Campinas Health Survey. The prevalence of milk consumption was analysed according to socio-economic characteristics, morbidities and health-related behaviours.

City of Campinas, state of São Paulo, Brazil.

A sample of 1710 participants of the 2015 Campinas Nutritional and Health Surveys.

A total of 73·8 % of the population consumed milk, but the prevalence of frequent consumption was only 44·0 %. Frequent milk consumption was higher among women, older people and individuals with better diet quality. A total of 18·4 % of the individuals who consumed milk reported consuming low-fat/skimmed milk; this prevalence was higher among women, individuals with a higher socio-economic status, those with better diet quality and those with chronic diseases.

Despite the high nutritional quality of milk and the different types available on the market, adults and older people do not follow current recommendations regarding its consumption. Information on the nutritional quality of milk and current recommendations should be disseminated more at healthcare services.

To describe diet quality (Healthy Eating Index 2010 (HEI-2010) and Healthy Eating Index 2015 (HEI-2015)) according to self-reported cannabis use among the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) adult participants.

Utilizing cross-sectional data, we assessed diet quality with up to two 24-h diet recalls from NHANES participants. Usual intakes were estimated via the multivariate Markov Chain–Monte Carlo method. Diet quality scores were compared among never users, previous users and current users of cannabis.

NHANES surveys from 2005 to 2016.

Adult NHANES participants (17 855) aged 20–59 years with valid data for dietary recalls and drug use questionnaires.

Current adult cannabis users (ages 20–59 years) had significantly lower total diet quality (HEI-2010) scores (51·8 ± 0·7) compared with previous (56·2 ± 0·4) and never users (57·7 ± 0·4). Similar differences in total and individual HEI-2015 scores were observed. For the HEI-2015 scores, cannabis users had a significantly higher (better) sodium scores (4·1 ± 0·2) compared with never users (3·3 ± 0·1) and previous users (3·2 ± 0·1). Cannabis users scored lower compared with never users on total vegetables (3·1 ± 0·1 v. 3·7 ± 0·0), total fruit (2·1 ± 0·1 v. 3·0 ± 0·1) and whole fruit (2·2 ± 0·1 v. 3·3 ± 0·1) for the HEI-2015 index.

Current cannabis users’ usual intakes reflect lower diet quality compared with never or previous users, particularly lower subcomponent scores of total vegetables, greens and beans, total fruit and whole fruit. Cannabis users should increase their intake of fruit and vegetables to improve overall diet quality.

To investigate homocysteine (Hcy) and folate levels, prevalence of hyperhomocysteinaemia (HHcy) and folate deficiency, which are affected by lifestyles in urban, agricultural and stock-raising populations.

This is a cross-sectional study.

Urban, agricultural and stock-raising regions in Emin, China.

Totally 1926 subjects – 885 (45·9 %) from urban, 861 (44·7 %) from agricultural and 180 (9·4 %) from stock-raising regions – were obtained using multistage stratified random sampling. Inclusion criteria encompassed inhabitants aged ≥15 years who resided at the current address for ≥6 months and agreed to participate in the study. Surveys on health behaviour questionnaires and physical examinations were conducted and blood samples collected.

The folate level of subjects from the stock-raising region was the lowest, followed by those from the agricultural region, and the highest in those from the urban region (3·48 v. 6·50 v. 7·12 ng/ml, P < 0·001), whereas mean Hcy showed no significant difference across regions. The OR for HHcy in stock-raising regions was 1·90 (95 % CI 1·11, 3·27) compared with the urban region after adjusting for all possible covariates. The OR for folate deficiency in stock-raising and agriculture regions was 11·51 (95 % CI 7·09, 18·67) and 1·91 (95 % CI 1·30, 2·82), respectively, compared with the urban region after adjusting for all possible covariates.

HHcy and folate deficiency are highly prevalent in stock-raisers, which is of important reference for HHcy control in Xinjiang, with a possibility of extension to others with approximate lifestyles.

To quantify the change in the risk of food insecurity and maternal mental disorder (MMD) before and during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic.

Repeated cross-sectional survey. Between 17 July and 10 September 2020, mother–child pairs who were enrolled in a population-based survey in 2017 were re-contacted by telephone for consent and to complete a telephonic COVID-19 survey. We used the Brazilian Food Insecurity Scale to assess food security and the Self Reporting Questionnaire-20 to assess MMD. McNemar’s test for paired data that also accounted for clustering was used. Logistic regression was used to assess the relationship of unemployment and receipt of government assistance with food insecurity and MMD in 2020.

Ceará, Brazil.

Five hundred and seventy-seven mother–child pairs completed the 2017 and 2020 surveys. At the time of the 2020 interview, the child cohort was 36–108 months of age.

The proportion of mothers reporting food insecurity was 15·5 % higher (95 % CI 5·9, 25·1, P value < 0·001) during the pandemic in July–August 2020 as compared with November 2017, while the prevalence of MMD was 40·2 % higher during the pandemic (95 % CI 32·6, 47·8, P value < 0·001). Loss of formal employment was associated with increased risk of food insecurity, but not with the risk of MMD.

The risk of food insecurity and MMD in Ceará increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. These findings highlight the need for policies and interventions to reduce the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on maternal and child health, nutrition and well-being in Brazil.

To examine associations between childcare type and nutrition and oral health indicators.

Cross-sectional data extracted from a longitudinal birth cohort. Parent-completed FFQ and questions regarding oral health and childcare use. The associations between childcare type, classified into four groups: parent care only (PCO), formal childcare only (FCO), informal childcare only (ICO) or combination of care (F&I), and nutrition and oral health indicators were examined.

Home and childcare.

Families with children aged 3 years (n 273) and 4 years (n 249) in Victoria, Australia.

No associations were observed between childcare type and core food/beverage consumption or oral health indicators. For discretionary beverages, compared with children receiving PCO at age 3 years, children in FCO or F&I were less likely to frequently consume fruit juice/drinks (FCO: adjusted OR (AOR) 0·41, 95 % CI 0·17, 0·96, P = 0·04; F&I: AOR 0·32, 95 % CI 0·14, 0·74, P = 0·008). At age 4 years, children receiving FCO or ICO were less likely to consume sweet beverages frequently compared with children receiving PCO: fruit juice/drink (ICO: AOR 0·42, 95 % CI 0·19, 0·94, P = 0·03; FCO: AOR 0·35, 95 % CI 0·14, 0·88, P = 0·03) and soft drink (ICO: AOR 0·23, 95 % CI 0·07, 0·74, P = 0·01; FCO: AOR 0·14, 95 % CI 0·03, 0·76, P = 0·02).

Associations between childcare type and discretionary beverage intake were observed. Investigation into knowledge, attitudes and activities in formal and informal childcare settings is required to explore different health promotion practices that may influence nutrition and oral health.

To analyse trends of social inequality in breastfeeding and infant formula (IF) use in Latin America between 1990 and 2010 decades.

Time-series cross-sectional study with data from Demographic and Health Surveys. We described the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF), breastfeeding between 6 and 12 months (BF6-12) and IF for infants under 6 months (IF < 6) and between 6 and 12 months (IF6-12). Social inequalities were assessed using the slope index of inequality (SII) and concentration index (CIX). Trends in the prevalence of breastfeeding, IF and index of social inequality were analysed by a linear regression model with weighted least squares variance.

Bolivia, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Haiti and Peru.

51·358 alive infants younger than 12 months.

Five countries showed an increasing trend for EBF and BF6-12, four increased for IF < 6 and six for IF6-12. Simultaneous decrease in IF < 6 (Colombia: −0·3/year; Haiti: −0·02/year) and increase in EBF (Colombia: +2·0/year; Haiti: +1·9/year) were observed only in two countries. EBF prevalence was high in the lowest income quintiles in five countries, and IF prevalence was high in the highest income quintiles in all countries and over the decades. For BF6-12, a decrease in inequality (prevalence increased in the highest quintile) was observed in Guatemala (SII1995 = −0·42; SII2015 = −0·28) and the Dominican Republic (SII1996 = −0·54; SII2013 = −0·26). Guatemala was the only country showing a decrease in inequality for BF (SII = −0·005; CIX = −0·0035) and an increase for IF (SII = 0·022; CIX = 0·01).

The inequality in BF and IF remained over time. However, inequality in IF < 6 has decreased because low-income infants have increased use and high-income infants have decreased.

In 2016, a Whole Foods Market© opened in the Englewood community of Chicago, IL – a predominately low-income African American community. This study aimed to examine changes to food and beverage availability and marketing in Englewood’s existing food stores after the opening of this supermarket.

Quasi-experimental study.

Two low-income African American communities in Chicago, IL.

Fieldworkers audited all small grocery and limited service stores (e.g. convenience stores, liquor stores and dollar/discount stores) located within one-square mile of the new supermarket and a one-square mile area of a demographically comparable community that also lacked a supermarket. Stores were audited before (2016) and after (2017 and 2018) the supermarket opened.

Of the 78 stores audited at baseline, 71·8 % were limited service stores and 85·9 % accepted Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits. Overall, the availability of healthy food and beverage options in nearby small stores was low at baseline and both follow-up periods. Difference-in-difference regression models revealed a significant increase in: (1) the percentage of stores in the intervention community (i.e. Englewood) offering regular cheese and promoting salty snacks at check-out from 2016 to 2017; and (2) the percentage of stores in the comparison community with interior store promotions for other sweetened beverages from 2016 to 2018.

Minimal changes in food and beverage availability and marketing occurred 1 and 2 years after the opening of a new supermarket. However, the wide range of staple food items offered by the supermarket expanded healthy food retail in Chicago’s Englewood community.

To investigate the relationship between nutrient intake and a straightforward Japanese nutritional goal of consuming a meal that includes staple, main and side dishes (SMS meal) more than twice a day.

This was a cross-sectional, observational study using the data from de-identified records of the 2012 National Health and Nutrition Survey. Dietary assessment was conducted using semi-weighed dietary records that were completed on one weekday.

A home-based setting in Japan.

30 269 subjects (male n 14 284; female n 15 985) aged ≥6 years (6–103 years, mean 50·4 (sd 22·3) years).

As the frequency of SMS meals increased, we found a higher intake of most nutrients and each food group. Subjects who consumed SMS meals at least twice a day were more likely to meet the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) for Japan compared with subjects who consumed an SMS meal once a day or less. However, the frequency of SMS meals did not necessarily ensure that DRI for Japan for saturated fatty acid, vitamin A, vitamin B1, calcium, iron and salt were met.

Consuming SMS meals at least twice a day is a useful and straightforward nutrition goal to achieve adequate intake of some nutrients. However, it is necessary to provide the public with more information on foodstuff choice to ensure an adequate intake of all nutrients.

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to examine the association between childhood obesity and modifiable population-level risk factors, after accounting for deprivation.

A review of the literature identified population-level risk factors including a healthy childcare setting, the local food environment, accessible open space, community safety and crime. Data for these risk factors were then identified and matched by each of the twenty-two local government areas in Wales to each child that had data on height and weight in the Wales Childhood Measurement Programme (CMP) (2012–2017). Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify associations with childhood obesity.

The current study was undertaken in Wales, UK, where approximately one in eight 4–5-year-olds are classified as obese.

All participants were children aged 4 or 5 years who attend school, measured as part of the CMP, between 2012 and 2017 (n 129 893, mean age 5·0 (sd 0·4) years).

After adjusting for deprivation, small but statistically significant associations were found between childhood obesity and percentage of land available as accessible open space OR 0·981 (95 % CI: 0·973, 0·989) P < 0·001) and density of fast food outlets OR 1·002 (95 % CI 1·001, 1·004, P = 0·001). No other population-level risk factors were associated with childhood obesity.

The current study indicates that, even after accounting for deprivation, risk factors such as the density of fast food outlets and access to green space should be considered when tackling childhood obesity as a public health issue.

To examine whether the density of neighbourhood restaurants affected the frequency of eating restaurant meals and subsequently affected diet quality.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Structural equation models assessed the indirect relationship between restaurant density (≤3 miles (4·8 km) of participant addresses) and dietary quality (Healthy Eating Index 2010 (HEI)) via the frequency of eating restaurant meals, after adjustment for sociodemographics, select health conditions, region, residence duration and area-level income.

Urbanised areas in multiple regions of the USA, years 2000–2002 and 2010–2012.

Participants aged 45–84 years were followed for 10 years (n 3567).

Median HEI (out of 100) was fifty-nine at baseline and sixty-two at follow-up. The cross-sectional analysis found that residing in areas with a high density of restaurants (highest-ranked quartile) was associated with 52 % higher odds of frequently eating restaurant meals (≥3 times/week, OR: 1·52, 95 % CI 1·18, 1·98) and 3 % higher odds of having lower dietary quality (HEI lowest quartile < 54, OR: 1·03, 95 % CI 1·01, 1·06); associations were not sustained in longitudinal analyses. The cross-sectional analysis found 34 % higher odds of having lower dietary quality for those who frequently ate at restaurants (OR: 1·34, 95 % CI 1·12, 1·61), and more restaurant meals (over time increase ≥ 1 time/week) were associated with higher odds of having worse dietary quality at follow-up (OR: 1·21, 95 % CI 1·00, 1·46).

Restaurant density was associated with frequently eating out in cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses but was associated with the lower dietary quality only in cross-sectional analyses. Frequent restaurant meals were negatively related to dietary quality. Interventions that encourage less frequent eating out may improve population dietary quality.

To examine geographical variations, trends and projections in the prevalence of childhood anemia at national and subpopulation levels.

Repeated cross-sectional Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) conducted during 2000–2018.

Fifty-three low- and middle-income countries (LMIC)

Totally, 776 689 children aged 6–59 months.

During the latest DHS rounds between 2005 and 2018, the prevalence of child anemia was > 20 % in fifty-two out of fifty-three countries and ranged from 15·9 % in Armenia in 2016 to 87·8 % in Burkina Faso in 2010. Out of thirty-six countries with at least two surveys during 2000–2018, the prevalence of child anemia decreased in twenty-two countries, highest in Zimbabwe (–4·2 %) and increased in fourteen countries, highest in Burundi (5·0 %). Based on the trend, eleven and twenty-two out of thirty-six countries are projected to experience, respectively, moderate and severe public health problem according to the WHO criteria (moderate problem: 20–39·9 % and severe problem: ≥ 40 %) due to child anemia in 2030, with the highest prevalence in Liberia (87·5 %, 95 % credible interval 52·0–98·8 %). The prevalence of child anemia varied across the mother’s education and age, child sex, wealth quintiles, and place of residence, with the highest rate of child anemia among the poorest, rural and low-educated mothers. These scenarios are projected to continue. The probability of reducing child anemia at < 0·5 % by 2030 is 0 % for all study countries.

The prevalence of child anemia varied between and within countries. None of the thirty-six LMIC is likely to eradicate child anemia by 2030.

To evaluate the association between diet quality and cost for foods purchased for consumption at home and away from home.

Cross-sectional analysis. Multivariable linear regression models evaluated the association between diet quality and cost for all food, food at home (FAH) and food away from home (FAFH).

Daily food intake data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2005–2016). Food prices were derived using data from multiple, publicly available databases. Diet quality was assessed using the Healthy Eating Index-2015 and the Alternative Healthy Eating Index-2010.

30 564 individuals ≥20 years with complete and reliable dietary data.

Mean per capita daily diet cost was $14·19 (95 % CI (13·91, 14·48)), including $6·92 (95 % CI (6·73, 7·10)) for FAH and $7·28 (95 % CI (7·05, 7·50)) for FAFH. Diet quality was higher for FAH compared to FAFH (P < 0·001). Higher diet quality was associated with higher food costs overall, FAH and FAFH (P < 0·001 for all comparisons).

These findings demonstrate that higher diet quality is associated with higher costs for all food, FAH and FAFH. This research provides policymakers, public health professionals and clinicians with information needed to support healthy eating habits. These findings are particularly relevant to contemporary health and economic concerns that have worsened because of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Chronic undernutrition is a common phenomenon in Bangladesh. However, information is grossly lacking to report the correlation between chronic undernutrition trajectory and lung function in children. The aim of the current study was to understand the association between early-childhood chronic undernutrition trajectory and lung function at preadolescence.

The current study is a part of the 9-year follow-up of a large-scale cohort study called the Maternal and Infant Nutrition Interventions in Matlab.

The current study was conducted in Matlab, a sub-district area of Bangladesh that is located 53 km south of the capital, Dhaka.

A total of 517 children participated in lung function measured with a spirometer at the age of 9 years. Weight and height were measured at five intervals from birth till the age of 9 years.

Over half of the cohort have experienced a stunting undernutrition phenomenon up to 9 years of age. Children who were persistently or intermittently stunted showed lower forced expiratory volume (ml/s) than normal-stature children (P < 0·05). Children who exhibited catch-up growth throughout 4·5 years from the stunted group showed similar lung function with normal counterparts, and a better lung function than in children with the same growth velocity or who had faltering growth. In the multivariable models, similar associations were observed in children who experienced catch-up growth than their counterparts after adjusting for covariates.

Our data suggest that catch-up growth in height during early childhood is associated with a better lung function at preadolescence.

To examine the variety of fruits and vegetables lower income households in the USA can buy while meeting Federal dietary recommendations at different levels of expenditure.

Simulation techniques were used to create 3000 market baskets of fruits and vegetables. All baskets contained enough food for a four-person household to meet dietary recommendations for fruits and vegetables over 1 week. Each basket’s retail value was estimated along with the ability of a representative household to afford each basket with different levels of expenditure.

We used data from the US Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Fruit and Vegetable Prices data product which reports a US household’s costs to buy each of 157 different fruit and vegetable products per edible cup equivalent.

We consider the situation facing a lower income household that receives maximum benefits through the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). These benefits are enough for the household to obtain a nutritious and palatable diet without spending any of its own money on food if it approximately follows USDA’s Thrifty Food Plan.

Households receiving maximum SNAP benefits can buy a sufficient variety and quantity of fruits and vegetables if they allocate about 40 % of those benefits to these two food groups. However, if households spend less than that amount, the variety of products they can buy while still satisfying recommendations drops off quickly.

Households that move fruits and vegetables to the centre of their budgets can better afford to meet Federal dietary guidelines.

To assess the outcome of severe wasting in infants below 6 months of age.

A prospective observational study conducted between January 2017 and October 2018.

A medical college-affiliated hospital in Eastern Delhi, catering mainly to the urban poor population.

All children with severe wasting (weight-for-length Z-score (WLZ) < −3 sd) between 1 and 6 months of age, requiring hospitalisation.

Out of fifty children enrolled, during hospitalisation, forty-two (84 %) recovered (WLZ > −3 sd) and discharged; the median (interquartile range (IQR)) duration of stay was 9·5 (6·5, 13·0) d. After 100 d of enrolment, sustained cure (WLZ > −2 SD) could be achieved in only fifteen (30 %) infants, while another fourteen (28 %) recovered from severe wasting, but remained in moderately wasted state (WLZ between −2 and −3 sd). Overall, there were three (6 %) deaths (all during first week of hospitalisation); three (6 %) relapses and fifteen (30 %) defaulters (5, 5, 2, 1 and 2 defaulted during hospitalisation at day 15, day 60, day 75 and day 90, respectively).

The overall recovery rate from severe wasting in infants below 6 months of age was below the acceptable levels. In order to achieve better long-term outcome, community linkage services after discharge from hospital are required for supervised feeding, close monitoring and supportive care.

To compare the effects of a typical Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR) diet with an FDPIR diet that meets Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) on inflammation response, appetite and energy intake on a combination of American Indian (AI) and non-AI individuals.

A within-subjects, randomised, crossover design was used to compare two dietary conditions: (1) a FDPIR diet that met DGA and (2) a FDPIR diet that did not meet DGA. Each participant served as their own control and was exposed to both dietary conditions. Repeated-measures ANOVA and t tests assessed significance between the two dietary conditions.

This took place in the Montana State University Nutrition Research Laboratory in the USA.

Female and male participants (n 13) aged 18–55 years from the university and local community.

There were no significant differences in inflammatory response and appetite sensations between the two dietary conditions. Findings indicated that participants ate 14 % more (P < 0·01) kcal on a typical FDPIR diet compared with a FDPIR diet that met DGA.

Higher energy intake during a typical FDPIR diet compared with a FDPIR diet that meets DGA may increase risk for obesity and nutrition-related diseases, including type 2 diabetes and other chronic inflammatory conditions.

To explore stakeholder perspectives regarding online diabetes nutrition education for American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/AN) with type 2 diabetes (T2D).

Qualitative data were collected through focus groups and interviews. Focus group participants completed a brief demographic and internet use survey.

Focus groups and community participant interviews were conducted in diverse AI/AN communities. Interviews with nationally recognised content experts were held via teleconference.

Eight focus groups were conducted with AI/AN adults with T2D (n 29) and their family members (n 22). Community participant interviews were conducted with eleven clinicians and healthcare administrators working in Native communities. Interviews with nine content experts included clinicians and researchers serving AI/AN.

Qualitative content analysis used constant comparative method for coding and generating themes across transcripts. Descriptive statistics were computed from surveys. AI/AN adults access the internet primarily through smartphones, use the internet for many purposes and identify opportunities for online diabetes nutrition education.

Online diabetes nutrition education may be feasible in Indian Country. These findings will inform the development of an eLearning diabetes nutrition education programme for AI/AN adults with T2D.

To evaluate energetic contribution according to the degree of industrial food processing and its association with sociodemographic, anthropometric, biochemical, clinical and behavioural characteristics in adolescents.

Cross-sectional study (Adolescent Lifestyle Study). Food consumption was assessed using 24-h dietary recalls, with foods classified by degree of industrial progressing. The usual diet was estimated using the Multiple Source Method. In a linear regression model, the energy percentage (E %) was associated with sociodemographic, anthropometric, biochemical, clinical and behavioural characteristics, after adjustment for sex and age.

Juiz de Fora, Brazil.

Eight hundred and four adolescents, of both sexes, 14–19 years of age, enrolled in public schools.

The E % of unprocessed or minimally processed foods corresponded to 43·1 %, processed foods to 11·0 % and the ultraprocessed foods to 45·9 %. E % of unprocessed foods was associated with socio-economic stratum (adjusted β = −0·093; P = 0·032), neck circumference (adjusted β = 0·017; P = 0·049), screen time (adjusted β = −0·247; P = 0·036) and HDL-cholesterol (adjusted β = −0·156; P = 0·003). E % of ultraprocessed foods was associated with socio-economic stratum (adjusted β = 0·118; P = 0·011), screen time (adjusted β = 0·375; P = 0·003), BMI (adjusted β = −0·029; P = 0·025), neck circumference (adjusted β = −0·017; P = 0·028) and HDL-cholesterol (adjusted β = 0·150; P = 0·002).

There was a high E % of ultraprocessed foods in the diet of the adolescents. Actions are needed to raise the awareness of adopting healthy eating habits.

To assess the factors associated with overweight and obesity among women of childbearing age in Brazil.

Cross-sectional study.

Using the National Health Survey (PNS) database, from the year 2013. The socio-economic and demographic factors analysed were age, race/skin colour, region, marital status, education level, employment and family income. Concerning health history, diagnoses of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, high cholesterol, heart attack, stroke, chronic kidney disease, menarche, parity and depression were evaluated. For lifestyle information, health status, alcoholic beverage consumption, smoking and physical activity were included. The outcomes were obesity and overweight. The association of excess weight with socio-economic and demographic factors, health history and lifestyle characteristics was investigated according to the appropriate theoretical–conceptual model for the topic.

The sample size was 17 109 women aged 18–49 years.

The prevalence of women with excess weight was 55·20 %, with 33·26 % being overweight and 21·94 % with obesity. The factors associated with excess weight were age, non-white skin colour, having a partner, family income of up to two minimum wages, menarche before the age of 12, multiparity, diabetes mellitus, depression, hypertension, high cholesterol, stroke and heart attack.

The results showed an association between excess weight and socio-demographic factors, both determinants of general and reproductive health history. Implementation of effective public health policies is necessary to prevent unfavourable outcomes related to the health of women of childbearing age with excess weight.

This article analyses the relationship between socio-economic status and the prevalence of overweight and obesity in the primary school population in Costa Rica.

A National School Weight/Height Census was disseminated across Costa Rica in 2016. The percentage of children who were overweight or obese was calculated by sex, age and socio-economic indicators (type of institution: private, public, mix; type of geographic location: rural, urban and the level of development of the district of residence: quartiles). A mixed-effects multinomial logistic regression model and mixed-effects logistic regression model were used to analyse the association between the prevalence of being overweight or obese and district socio-economic status.

The survey was carried out in public and private primary schools across Costa Rica in 2016.

In total, 347 366 students from 6 to 12 years were enrolled in public and private primary schools.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity among children was 34·0 %. Children in private schools were more likely to be overweight or obese than students in public schools (OR = 1·10 [1·07, 1·13]). Additionally, children were less likely to be overweight or obese if attending a school in a district of the lowest socio-economic quartile compared with the highest socio-economic quartile (OR = 0·79 [0·75, 0·83]) and in a rural area compared with the urban area (OR = 0·92 [0·87, 0·97]).

Childhood obesity in Costa Rica continues to be a public health problem. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in children was associated with indicators of higher socio-economic status.