Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T03:32:45.987Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pathways from science findings to health benefits

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 August 2008

M. Rutter  and
R. Plomin
M. Rutter*
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
R. Plomin
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
*
*Address for correspondence: Professor Sir Michael Rutter, MRC SGDP Centre, PO 080, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF, UK. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

There have been numerous exhortations for more ‘translational research’. A selective review of historical examples of research leading to health benefits is used to consider the various forms of successful interplay between basic science and clinical applications. This is followed by a consideration of key neuroscience findings that might be relevant for translation, and then by a discussion of the challenges and opportunities in relation to mental disorders. The time-frame for the pathway from science findings to health benefits is usually long, and generally requires an interactive interplay among different scientific strategies. There is a false dichotomy between so-called basic and applied research and translation needs to proceed from the bedside to the laboratory as well as in the opposite direction. There is a key need for bridging research of the hypothesis-testing experimental medicine variety. Health benefits may involve either public health considerations or the treatment of individual patients, or both. There are now some opportunities for direct translational research but there is a much greater need for hypothesis-based bridging studies that occupy a crucial mid-phase in the pathway from science findings to health benefits.

Keywords

Basic and applied researchexperimental medicinetranslational research
Type
Editorial Review
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 39 , Issue 4 , April 2009 , pp. 529 - 542
Copyright
Copyright © 2008 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Academy of Medical Sciences (2007). Identifying the Environmental Causes of Disease: How Should we Decide What to Believe and When to Take Action? Academy of Medical Sciences: London.Google Scholar
Academy of Medical Sciences (2008). Brain Science, Addiction and Drugs. Academy of Medical Sciences: London.Google Scholar
Adamo, KB, Tesson, F (2008). Gene–environment interaction and the metabolic syndrome. In Genetic Effects on Environmental Vulnerability (ed. Rutter, M.), pp. 103–118. Wiley: London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aggleton, JP (ed) (2000). The Amygdala: A Functional Analysis. Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amaral, DG, Corbett, BA (2003). The amygdala, autism and anxiety. In Autism: Neural Basis and Treatment Possibilities (ed. Bock, G. and Goode, J.), pp. 177–197. John Wiley & Sons Ltd: Chichester.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andreasen, N (2001). Brave New brain: Conquering Mental Illness in the Era of the Genome. Oxford University Press: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashe, K (2007). A tale about tau. New England Journal of Medicine 357, 933–935.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ayd, FJ, Blackwell, B (eds) (1970). Discoveries in Biological Psychiatry. Lippincott: Philadelphia, PA.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A (2007). Working Memory, Thought, and Action. Oxford University Press: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, AD (1976). The Psychology of Memory. Basic Books: New York.Google Scholar
Baddeley, AD (1986). Working Memory. Oxford University Press: Oxford.Google ScholarPubMed
Basu, A, Pereira, J, Aitchison, KJ (2007). The pharmacological management of schizophrenia. In College Seminar Series in General Adult Psychiatry, 2nd edn (ed. Stein, G. and Wilkinson, G.), pp. 238–294. Gaskell (Royal College of Psychiatrists): London.Google Scholar
Bateson, P, Barker, D, Clutton-Brock, T, Deb, D, D'Udine, B, Foley, RA, Gluckman, P, Godfrey, K, Kirkwood, T, Lahr, MM, McNamara, J, Metcalfe, NB, Monaghan, P, Spencer, HG, Sultan, SE (2004). Developmental plasticity and human health. Nature 430, 419–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Battaglia, M (2008). Gene–environment interaction and behavioral disorders: a developmental perspective based on endophenotypes. In Genetic Effects on Environmental Vulnerability (ed. Rutter, M.), pp. 31–40. Wiley: London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, J (in press). Neurobiology of reactive and instrumental aggression. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B.Google Scholar
Blair, RJR, Mitchell, DGV, Blair, KS (2005). The Psychopath: Emotion and the Brain. Blackwell: Oxford.Google Scholar
Blakemore, S-J (2008). The social brain in adolescence. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9, 267–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bliss, T, Collingridge, G, Morris, R (eds) (2003). Long-Term Potentiation. Oxford University Press: Oxford.Google ScholarPubMed
Bliss, TV, Lømo, T (1973). Long-lasting potentiation of synaptic transmission in the dentate gyrus of the anaesthetized rabbit following stimulation of the perforant path. Journal of Physiology 23 2, 331–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloom, FE (ed) (2007). Best of the Brain, from Scientific American: Mind, Matter and Tomorrow's Brain. Dana Press: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Caspi, A, Moffitt, TE (2006). Gene–environment interaction research and neuroscience: a new partnership? Nature Reviews Neuroscience 7, 583–590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Champagne, F, Chretien, P, Stevenson, CW, Zhang, TY, Gratton, A, Meaney, MJ (2004). Variations in nucleus accumbens dopamine associated with individual differences in maternal behavior in the rat. Journal of Neuroscience 24, 4113–4123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charney, DS, Nestler, E (eds) (in press). Neurobiology of Mental Illness, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press: New York and Oxford.Google Scholar
Cooksey, D (2006). A Review of UK Health Research Funding. The Stationery Office: London.Google Scholar
Courchesne, E, Carper, R, Akshoomoff, N (2003). Evidence of brain overgrowth in the first year of life in autism. Journal of the American Medical Association 290, 337–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Courchesne, E, Pierce, K, Schumann, C, Redcay, E, Buckwalter, J, Kennedy, D, Morgan, J (2007). Mapping early brain development in autism. Neuron 56, 399–413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craik, FIM, Lockhart, RS (1972). Levels of processing. A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour 11, 671–684.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dadds, M (in press). Effective reduction of conduct problems in young children. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B.Google Scholar
Dadds, MR, El Masry, Y, Wimalaweera, S, Guastella, AJ (2008). Reduced eye gaze explains ‘Fear Blindness’ in childhood psychopathic traits. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 47, 455–463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damasio, AR (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Rationality and the Human Brain. Putnam: New York.Google Scholar
Dapretto, M, Davies, MS, Pfeifer, JH, Scott, AA, Sigman, M, Bookheimer, SY, Lacoboni, M (2006). Understanding emotions in others: mirror-neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders. Nature Neuroscience 9, 28–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doll, R, Hill, AB (1950). Smoking and carcinoma of the lung: preliminary report. British Medical Journal 2, 739–748.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doll, R, Hill, AB (1954). The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits. A preliminary report. British Medical Journal ii, 1451–1455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dollery, C (1978). The End of an Age of Optimism: Medical Science in Retrospect and Prospect. Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust: London.Google Scholar
Everitt, BJ, Robbins, TW (2005). Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: from actions to habits to compulsion. Nature Neuroscience 8, 1481–1489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, RA (1958 a). Lung cancer and cigarettes. Nature 182, 108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, RA (1958 b). Cancer and smoking. Nature 182, 596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraga, MF, Ballestar, E, Paz, MF, Ropero, S, Setien, F, Ballestar, ML, Heine-Suner, D, Cigudosa, JC, Urioste, M, Benitez, J, Boix-Chornet, M, Sanchez-Aguilera, A, Ling, C, Carlsson, E, Poulsen, P, Vaag, A, Stephan, Z, Spector, TD, Wu, YZ, Plass, C, Esteller, M (2005). Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 102, 10604–10609.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frith, C (2007). Making up the Mind: How the Brain Creates Our Mental World. Blackwell Publishing: Malden, MA.Google Scholar
Goedert, M, Klug, A, Crowther, RA (2006 a). Tau protein, the paired helical filament and Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 9, 195–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goedert, M, Spillantini, MG, Chetti, B, Crowther, RA, Klug, A (2006 b). The Alzheimer tangle – 100 years on. In Alzheimer: 100 Years and Beyond (ed. Jucker, M., Beyreuther, K., Haass, C., Nitsch, R. M. and Christen, Y.), pp. 297–304. Springer-Verlag: Berlin/Heidelberg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, R, Henderson, J (2006). Review of the Fetal Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure: Report to the Department of Health. National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit: Oxford.Google Scholar
Guy, J, Hendrich, B, Holmes, M, Martin, JE, Bird, A (2001). A mouse Mecp2-null mutation causes neurological symptoms that mimic Rett syndrome. Nature Genetics 27, 322–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hariri, AR, Drabant, EM, Munoz, KE, Kolachana, BS, Mattay, VS, Egan, MF, Weinberger, DR (2005). A susceptibility gene for affective disorders and the response of the human amygdala. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 146–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hariri, AR, Mattay, VS, Tessitore, A, Kolachana, B, Fera, F, Goldman, D, Egan, MF, Weinberger, D (2002). Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science 297, 400–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, NA, Critchley, HD (2007). Affective neuroscience and psychiatry. British Journal of Psychiatry 191, 192–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heath, AC, Lynskey, MT, Waldron, M (2008). Substance use and substance use disorder. In Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5th edn (ed. Rutter, M., Bishop, D., Pine, D., Scott, S., Stevenson, J., Taylor, E. and Thapar, A.), pp. 567–588. Blackwell: Oxford.Google Scholar
Himsworth, H (1962). Society and the advancement of natural knowledge. British Medical Journal 2, 1557–1563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hörig, H, Marincola, E, Marincola, FM (2005). Obstacles and opportunities in translational research. Nature Medicine 11, 705–708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hubel, DH, Wiesel, TN (2005). Brain and Visual Perception. Oxford University Press: Oxford.Google Scholar
Hyman, SE (2007). Can neuroscience be integrated into the DSM-V? Nature Reviews Neuroscience 8, 725–732.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Insel, TR, Scolnick, EM (2006). Cure therapeutics and strategic prevention: raising the bar for mental health research. Molecular Psychiatry 11, 11–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ioannidis, JPA (2004). Materializing research promises: opportunities, priorities and conflicts in translational medicine. Journal of Translational Medicine 2, 5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaenisch, R, Bird, A (2003). Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals. Nature Genetics Supplement 33, 245–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffee, SR, Caspi, A, Moffitt, TE, Polo-Tomas, M, Price, TS, Taylor, A (2004). The limits of child effects: evidence for genetically mediated child effects on corporal punishment but not on physical maltreatment. Developmental Psychology 40, 1047–1058.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jirtle, RL, Skinner, MK (2007). Environmental epigenomics and disease susceptibility. Nature Reviews Genetics 8, 253–262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnstone, E, Ebmeier, K, Miller, P, Owens, D, Lawrie, S (2005). Predicting schizophrenia: findings from the Edinburgh High-Risk Study. British Journal of Psychiatry 186, 18–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, KL, Smith, DW, Ulleland, CH, Streissguth, AP (1973). Pattern of malformation in offspring of chronic alcoholic mothers. Lancet 1, 1267–1271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jucker, M, Beyreuther, K, Haass, C, Nitsch, RM, Christen, Y (eds) (2006). Alzheimer: 100 Years and Beyond. Springer-Verlag: Berlin/Heidelberg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kandel, ER (2007). In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind. W. W. Norton & Co: New York.Google Scholar
Kendler, KS, Prescott, CA (2006). Genes, Environment, and Psychopathology: Understanding the Causes of Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
Kraemer, HC, Lowe, KK, Kupfer, DJ (2005). To Your Health: How to Understand What Research Tells Us About Risk. Oxford University Press: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Fanu, J (1999). The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine. Abacus: London.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marincola, FM (2003). Translational medicine: a two-way road. Journal of Translational Medicine 1, 1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marshall, P, Fox, N (eds) (2006). The Development of Social Engagement: Neurobiological Perspectives. Oxford University Press: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meaney, MJ, Szyf, M (2005). Environmental programming of stress responses through DNA methylation: life at the interface between a dynamic environment and a fixed genome. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 7, 103–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer-Lindenberg, A, Buckholtz, JW, Kolachana, B, Hariri, AR, Pezawas, L, Blasi, G, Wabnitz, A, Honea, R, Verchinski, BA, Callicott, J, Egan, MF, Mattay, VS, Weinberger, DR (2006). Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103, 6269–6274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mill, J, Petronis, A (2007). Molecular studies of major depressive disorder: the epigenetic perspective. Molecular Psychiatry 12, 799–814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mill, J, Tang, T, Kaminsky, Z, Khare, T, Yazdanpanah, S, Bouchard, L, Jia, P, Assadzadeh, A, Flanagan, J, Schumacher, A, Wang, S-C, Petronis, A (2008). Epigenomic profiling reveals DNA-methylation changes associated with major psychosis. American Journal of Human Genetics 82, 696–711.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milner, B, Squire, LR, Kandel, ER (1998). Cognitive neuroscience and the study of memory. Neuron 20, 445–468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milner, BS, Corkin, S, Teuber, H-L (1968). Further analysis of the hippocampal amnesic syndrome: 14-year follow-up of HM. Neuropsychologia 6, 215–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, CA, Jeste, S (2008). Neurobiological perspectives on developmental psychopathology. In Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5th edn (ed. Rutter, M., Bishop, D., Pine, D., Scott, S., Stevenson, J., Taylor, E. and Thapar, A.), pp. 145–159. Blackwell: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, CA, Zeanah, CH, Fox, NA, Marshall, PJ, Smyke, AT, Guthrie, D (2007). Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Science 318, 1937–1940.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Office of the US Surgeon General (2004). The Health Consequences of Smoking. US Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta.Google Scholar
Office of the US Surgeon General (2006). Surgeon General's Report – The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta.Google Scholar
Patrick, CJ (ed) (2006). Handbook of Psychopathy. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
Peters, K (2004). Exceptional matters: clinical research from bedside to bench. Clinical Medicine 4, 551–566.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pezawas, L, Meyer-Lindenberg, A, Drabant, EM, Verchinski, BA, Munoz, K, Kolachana, B, Egan, MF, Mattay, VS, Hariri, AR, Weinberger, DR (2005). 5-HTTLPR polymorphism impacts human cingulate–amygdala interactions: a genetic susceptibility mechanism for depression. Nature Neuroscience 8, 828–834.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phelps, EA, LeDoux, JE (2005). Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: from animal models to human behavior. Neuron 48, 175–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pistis, M, Perra, S, Pillolla, G, Melis, M, Muntoni, AL, Gessa, GL (2004). Adolescent exposure to cannabinoids induces long-lasting changes in the response to drugs of abuse of rat midbrain dopamine neurons. Biological Psychiatry 56, 86–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plomin, R, Bergeman, CS (1991). The nature of nurture: genetic influence on ‘environmental’ measures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14, 373–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Randall, CL (2001). Alcohol and pregnancy: highlights from three decades of research. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 62, 554–561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapoport, J, Addington, A, Frangou, S (2005). The neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: update 2005. Molecular Psychiatry 10, 434–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
RCP (2004). Forty Fatal Years. Royal College of Physicians and Action on Smoking and Health (ASH): London.Google Scholar
Redcay, E, Courchesne, E (2005). When is the brain enlarged in autism? A meta-analysis of all brain size reports. Biological Psychiatry 58, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rizzolatti, G, Craighero, L (2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience 27, 169–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberson, ED, Scearce-Levie, K, Palop, JJ, Yan, F, Cheng, IH, Wu, T, Gerstein, H, Yu, GQ, Mucke, L (2007). Reducing endogenous tau ameliorates amyloid beta-induced deficits in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model. Science 316, 750–754.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, G (1992). The Strategy of Prevention. Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Roses, AD, Pericak-Vance, MA, Saunders, AM (2005). Alzheimer disease and other dementias. In Emery and Rimoin's Principles and Practice of Medical Genetics, 4th edn, vol. 3 (ed. Rimoin, D. L., Connor, J. M., Pyeritz, R. E. and Korf, B. R.), pp. 2894–2916. Churchill Livingstone: London.Google Scholar
Roth, M (1955). The natural history of mental disorder in old age. British Journal of Psychiatry 101, 281–301.Google ScholarPubMed
Roth, M, Tomlinson, B, Blessed, C (1966). Correlation between scores for dementia and counts of senile plaques in cerebral grey matter in elderly subjects. Nature 200, 109–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M (2006 a). Genes and Behaviour: Nature–Nurture Interplay Explained. Blackwell Publishing: London.Google Scholar
Rutter, M (2006 b). Implications of resilience concepts for scientific understanding. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1094, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M (2006 c). The psychological effects of early institutional rearing. In The Development of Social Engagement: Neurobiological Perspectives (ed. Marshall, P. J. and Fox, N. A.), pp. 355–391. Oxford University Press: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M (2007 a). Gene–environment interdependence. Developmental Science 10, 12–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M (2007 b). Proceeding from observed correlation to causal inference: the use of natural experiments. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2, 377–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M (ed) (2008). Genetic Effects on Environmental Vulnerability. Wiley: London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M (in press). Developmental perspectives on psychopathology. In The Neurobiology of Mental Illness, 3rd edn (ed. Charney, D. S. and Nestler, E. J.). Oxford University Press: Oxford.Google Scholar
Rutter, M, Beckett, C, Castle, J, Colvert, E, Kreppner, J, Mehta, M, Stevens, SE, Sonuga-Barke, EJS (2007). Effects of profound early institutional deprivation: an overview of findings from a UK longitudinal study of Romanian adoptees. European Journal of Developmental Psychology 4, 332–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M, Maughan, B, Kim-Cohen, J (2006). Continuities and discontinuities in psychopathology between childhood and adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 47, 276–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, M, Koch, M (2003). Chronic pubertal, but not adult chronic cannabinoid treatment impairs sensorimotor gating, recognition memory, and the performance in a progressive ratio task in adult rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 28, 1760–1769.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scoville, WB, Milner, B (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 20, 11–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Small, GW, Kepe, V, Ercoli, LM, Siddarth, P, Bookheimer, SY, Miller, KJ, Lavretsky, H, Burggren, AC, Cole, GM, Vinters, HV, Thompson, PM, Huang, S-C, Satyamurthy, N, Phelps, ME, Barrio, JR (2006). PET of brain amyloid and tau in mild cognitive impairment. New England Journal of Medicine 355, 2652–2663.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sonuga-Barke, EJS, Beckett, C, Kreppner, J, Castle, J, Colvert, E, Stevens, S, Hawkins, A, Rutter, M (in press). Is subnutrition necessary for a poor outcome following severe and pervasive early institutional deprivation? Brain growth, cognition and mental health. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology.Google Scholar
Spillantini, MG, Murrell, JR, Goedert, M, Farlow, M, Klug, A, Ghetti, B (2006). Mutations in the tau gene (MAPT) in FTDP-17: the family with multiple system tauopathy with presenile dementia (MSTD). Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 9, 373–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, D (2004, 2005a, b, 2006a, b). An interpretative history of the cholesterol controversy: parts I–V. Journal of Lipid Research 45, 1583–1593; 46, 179–189; 46, 2037–2051; 47, 1–14; 47, 1339–1351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tremblay, R (in press). Prevention better than rehabilitation? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B.Google Scholar
Tulving, E (1962). Subjective organisation in free recall of ‘unrelated’ words. Psychological Review 69, 344–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tulving, E (1989). Memory: performance, knowledge and experience. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 1, 3–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tulving, E (2002). Episodic memory: from mind to brain. Annual Review of Psychology 53, 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uher, R (2008). Gene–environment interaction: overcoming methodological challenges. In Genetic Effects on Environmental Vulnerability (ed. Rutter, M.), pp. 13–25. Wiley: London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uher, R, McGuffin, P (2008). The moderation by the serotonin transporter gene of environmental adversity in the aetiology of mental illness: review and methodological analysis. Molecular Psychiatry 13, 131–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Viding, E, Blair, RJR, Moffitt, TE, Plomin, R (2005). Evidence for substantial genetic risk for psychopathy in 7-year-olds. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46, 592–597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volkow, N, Swanson, J (2008). Basic neuropsychopharmacology. In Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5th edn (ed. Rutter, M., Bishop, D., Pine, D., Scott, S., Stevenson, J., Taylor, E. and Thapar, A.), pp. 212–233. Blackwell: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, ICG, Cervoni, N, Champagne, FA, D'Alessio, AC, Charma, S, Seckl, J, Dymov, S, Szyf, M, Meaney, MJ (2004). Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Nature Neuroscience 7, 847–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, J, Whiten, A, Suddendorf, T, Perrett, D (2001). Imitation, mirror neurons and autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 25, 287–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woolf, SH (2008). The meaning of translational research and why it matters. Journal of the American Medical Association 299, 211–213.Google ScholarPubMed
Zeanah, CH, Nelson, CA, Fox, NA, Smyke, AT, Marshall, P, Parker, SW, Koga, S (2003). Designing research to study the effects of institutionalization on brain and behavioral development: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Development and Psychopathology 15, 885–907.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zerhouni, E (2003). The NIH Roadmap. Science 302, 63–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed