Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T15:49:05.895Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

New/emerging psychoactive substances and associated psychopathological consequences

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 July 2019

F. Schifano ,
F. Napoletano ,
S. Chiappini ,
A. Guirguis ,
J. M. Corkery ,
S. Bonaccorso ,
A. Ricciardi ,
N. Scherbaum  and
A. Vento
F. Schifano
Affiliation:
Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
F. Napoletano
Affiliation:
Homerton University Hospital, London, UK
S. Chiappini*
Affiliation:
Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
A. Guirguis
Affiliation:
Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, Wales
J. M. Corkery
Affiliation:
Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse, and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
S. Bonaccorso
Affiliation:
Camden and Islington NHS Mental Health Foundation Trust, London, UK
A. Ricciardi
Affiliation:
Camden and Islington NHS Mental Health Foundation Trust, London, UK Department of Mental Health, ASL Roma 1, Rome, Italy
N. Scherbaum
Affiliation:
LVR-Klinikum Essen, Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
A. Vento
Affiliation:
Addictions' Observatory (ODDPSS), Rome, Italy ‘Guglielmo Marconi’ University, Rome, Italy Department of Mental Health, ASL Roma 2, Rome, Italy
*
Author for correspondence: Stefania Chiappini, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

The present paper provides an updated review of both the large number of new/novel/emerging psychoactive substances (NPS) and their associated psychopathological consequences. Focus was here given on identification of those NPS being commented in specialised online sources and the related short-/long-term psychopathological and medical ill-health effects.

Methods

NPS have been identified through an innovative crawling/navigating software, called the ‘NPS.Finder®’, created in order to facilitate the process of early recognition of NPS online. A range of information regarding NPS, including chemical and street names; chemical formula; three-dimensional image and anecdotally reported clinical/psychoactive effects, were here made available.

Results

Using the ‘NPS.Finder®’ approach, a few thousand NPS were here preliminarily identified, a number which is about 4-fold higher than those figures suggested by European and international drug agencies. NPS most commonly associated with the onset of psychopathological consequences included here synthetic cannabinoids/cannabimimetics; new synthetic opioids; ketamine-like dissociatives; novel stimulants; novel psychedelics and several prescription and over-the-counter medicines.

Conclusions

The ever-increasing changes in terms of recreational psychotropics' availability represent a relatively new challenge for psychiatry, as the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of many NPS have not been thoroughly understood. Health/mental health professionals should be informed about the range of NPS; their intake modalities; their psychoactive sought-after effects; the idiosyncratic psychotropics' combinations and finally, their medical and psychopathological risks.

Keywords

Drug-induced psychosisdrug misusenew psychoactive substancesNPSprescribing drug misusepsychedelics
Type
Invited Review
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 51 , Issue 1 , January 2021 , pp. 30 - 42
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdulrahim, D, Bowden-Jones, O, and on behalf of the NEPTUNE group (2018) The misuse of synthetic opioids: harms and clinical management of fentanyl, fentanyl analogues and other novel synthetic opioids. In Information for Clinicians. London: Novel Psychoactive Treatment UK Network (NEPTUNE), pp. 8–18. Available at https://smmgp.org.uk/media/12031/neptune-fentanyl-clinical-management-mar-18.pdf (Accessed 23 November 2018).Google Scholar
Adebamiro, A and Perazella, MA (2013) Recurrent acute kidney injury following bath salts intoxication. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 59, 273–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) (2013) ACMD advice on the control of Z-drugs. Available at https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/237037/ACMD_advice_Z_drugs.pdf (Accessed 23 November 2018).Google Scholar
Al-Husseini, A, Van Hout, MC and Wazaify, M (2018) Pregabalin misuse and abuse: a scoping review of extant literature. Journal of Drug Issues 48, 356–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angerer, V, Jacobi, S, Franz, F, Auwärter, V and Pietsch, J (2017) Three fatalities associated with the synthetic cannabinoids 5F-ADB, 5F-PB-22, and AB-CHMINACA. Forensic Science International 281, e9–e15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armenian, P, Vo, KT, Barr-Walker, J and Lynch, KL (2017) Fentanyl, fentanyl analogs and novel synthetic opioids: a comprehensive review. Neuropharmacology 134(Pt A):121–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, DE (2007) Loperamide: a pharmacological review. Reviews in Gastroenterological Disorders 7(Suppl 3):S11–S18.Google ScholarPubMed
Barrios, L, Grison-Hernando, H, Boels, D, Bouquie, R, Monteil-Ganiere, C and Clement, R (2016) Death following ingestion of methylone. International Journal of Legal Medicine 130, 381–385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, D, Tojo, LM and Tracy, DK (2015) Legal highs: staying on top of the flood of novel psychoactive substances. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology 5, 97–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berridge, KC and Robinson, TE (2016) Liking, wanting, and the incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. American Psychologist 71, 670–679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonaccorso, S, Metastasio, A, Ricciardi, A, Stewart, N, Jamal, N, Naasir-Ud-Dinn, R, Theleritis, C, Ferracuti, S, Ducci, G and Schifano, F (2018) Synthetic cannabinoid use in a case series of patients with psychosis presenting to acute psychiatric settings: clinical presentation and management issues. Brain Sciences 8, pii: E133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonnet, U and Scherbaum, N (2017) How addictive are pregabalin and gabapentin? A systematic review. European Neuropsychopharmacology 27, 1185–1215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonnet, U, Richter, EL, Isbruch, K and Scherbaum, N (2018) On the addictive power of gabapentinoids: a mini review. Psychiatria Danubina 30, 142–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borek, HA and Holstege, CP (2012) Hyperthermia and multiorgan failure after abuse of ‘bath salts’ containing 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone. Annals of Emergency Medicine 60, 103–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brakoulias, V (2012) Products containing synthetic cannabinoids and psychosis. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 46, 281–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capriola, M (2013) Synthetic cathinone abuse. Clinical Pharmacology: Advances and Applications 5, 109.Google ScholarPubMed
Celofiga, A, Koprivsek, J and Klavz, J (2014) Use of synthetic cannabinoids in patients with psychotic disorders: case series. Journal of Dual Diagnosis 10, 168–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] (2016) Synthetic Opioid Overdose Data. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/fentanyl.html (Accessed 11 October 2018).Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] (2018) U.S. drug overdose deaths continue to rise; increase fueled by synthetic opioids. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2018/p0329-drug-overdose-deaths.html (Accessed 11 October 2018).Google Scholar
Cheng, S, Yeo, J, Brown, E and Regan, A (2012) Bath salts and synthetic cannabinoids: a review. American Academy of Emergency Medicine 19, 19–22.Google Scholar
Chiappini, S and Schifano, F (2016) A decade of gabapentinoid misuse: an analysis of the European Medicines Agency's ‘suspected adverse drug reactions’ database. CNS Drugs 30, 647–654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiappini, S and Schifano, F (2018) Is there a potential of misuse for quetiapine? Literature review and analysis of the European Medicines Agency/EMA Adverse Drug Reactions’ database. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 38, 72–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, RJ (2013) ‘I can't be an addict. I am’. Over-the-counter medicine abuse: a qualitative study. BMJ Open 3, e002913.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corazza, O, Assi, S, Simonato, P, Corkery, J, Bersani, FS, Demetrovics, Z, Stair, J, Fergus, S, Pezzolesi, C, Pasinetti, M, Deluca, P, Drummond, C, Davey, Z, Blaszko, U, Moskalewicz, J, Mervo, B, Furia, LD, Farre, M, Flesland, L, Pisarska, A, Shapiro, H, Siemann, H, Skutle, A, Sferrazza, E, Torrens, M, Sambola, F, van der Kreeft, P, Scherbaum, N and Schifano, F (2013) Promoting innovation and excellence to face the rapid diffusion of novel psychoactive substances in the EU: the outcomes of the ReDNet project. Human Psychopharmacology 28, 317–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corkery, J, Claridge, H, Loi, B, Goodair, C and Schifano, F (2014) Drug-related deaths in the UK: Annual Report 2013. Drug-related deaths reported by Coroners in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man; Police forces in Scotland; & the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency – Annual Report January-December 2012. 12 February. London: International Centre for Drug Policy, St George's University of London. ISBN: 978-1-897778-9-2.Google Scholar
Corkery, JM, Orsolini, L, Papanti, GD and Schifano, F (2017) From concept(ion) to life after death/the grave: the ‘natural’ history and life-cycle(s) of novel psychoactive substances (NPS). Human Psychopharmacology Clinical & Experimental 32, 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corkery, JM, Orsolini, L, Papanti, D and Schifano, F (2018 a) Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) and recent scenarios: epidemiological, anthropological and clinical pharmacological issues. In Miolo, G, Stair, JL and Zloh, M (eds), Light in Forensic Science: Issues and Applications. London: Royal Society of Chemistry, Vol 8, pp. 207–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corkery, JM, Goodair, C and Claridge, H (2018 b). Synthetic cathinones and related fatalities in the United Kingdom. In Corazza, O and Roman-Urrestarazu, A (eds), Handbook of Novel Psychoactive Substances – What Clinicians Should Know About NPS. London: Routledge, pp. 181–207.Google Scholar
Corkery, JM, Streete, P, Claridge, H, Goodair, C, Papanti, GD, Orsolini, L, Schifano, F, Sikka, K, Korber, S and Hendricks, A (in press) Characteristics of deaths associated with kratom use. Journal of Psychopharmacology.Google Scholar
Dargan, PI, Albert, S and Wood, DM (2010) Mephedrone use and associated adverse effects in school and college/university students before the UK legislation change. Quarterly Journal of Medicine 103, 875–879.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denysenko, L, Freudenreich, O, Philbrick, K, Penders, T, Zimbrean, P, Nejad, S, Chwastiak, L, Dickerman, A, Niazi, S, Shim, J and Soellner, W (2015) Catatonia in medically ill patients an evidence-based medicine (EBM) monograph for psychosomatic medicine practice. The European Association of Psychosomatic Medicine 30, 140–155.Google Scholar
De Sousa Fernandes Perna, EB, Papaseit, E, Pérez-Mañá, C, Mateus, J, Theunissen, EL, Kuypers, K, de la Torre, R, Farré, M and Ramaekers, JG (2016) Neurocognitive performance following acute mephedrone administration, with and without alcohol. Journal of Psychopharmacology 30, 1305–1312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drug Enforcement Administration [DEA] (2013) PHENCYCLIDINE. Available at https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/drug_chem_info/pcp.pdf (Accessed 14 October 2018).Google Scholar
Drummer, OH (2018) Fatalities caused by novel opioids: a review. Forensic Sciences Research 4, 95–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
EMCDDA (2017) High Risk Drug use and New Psychoactive Substances. EMCDDA Rapid Communication. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Available at http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/rapid-communications/high-risk-drug-use-and-nps_en (Accessed 23 November 2018).Google Scholar
EMCDDA (2018) EMCDDA – Europol 2017 Annual Report on the implementation of Council Decision 2005/387/JHA. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Available at http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/9282/20183924_TDAN18001ENN_PDF.pdf (Accessed 23 November 2018).Google Scholar
Evans, EA and Sullivan, M (2014) Abuse and misuse of antidepressants. Abuse and misuse of antidepressants. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation 5, 107–120.Google ScholarPubMed
Feng, LY, Battulga, A, Han, E, Chung, H and Li, JH (2017) New psychoactive substances of natural origin: a brief review. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis 25, 461–471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Food and Drug Administration [FDA] (2010) Highlights of Prescribing Information. Quetiapine Fumarate (Seroquel®). Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/020639s045s046lbl.pdf (Accessed 27 October 2018).Google Scholar
Francesconi, G, Orsolini, L, Corkery, J, Papanti, D and Schifano, F (2015) Venlafaxine as the ‘baby ecstasy’?: literature overview and analysis of web-based misusers’ experiences. Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 30, 255–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, TP, Morgan, CJ, Vaughn-Jones, J, Hussain, N, Karimi, K and Curran, HV (2012) Cognitive and subjective effects of mephedrone and factors influencing use of a new legal high. Addiction 107, 792–800.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, MJ, Rose, DZ and Myers, MA (2013) Ischemic stroke after use of the synthetic marijuana ‘spice’. Neurology 81, 2090–2093.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glue, P, Al-Shaqsi, S, Hancock, D, Gale, C, Strong, B and Schep, L (2013) Hospitalisation associated with use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2. New Zealand Medical Journal 126, 18–23.Google ScholarPubMed
Graddy, R, Buresh, ME and Rastegar, DA (2018) New and emerging illicit psychoactive substances. Medical Clinics of North America 102, 697–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, EW, Haughey, HM, Ait-Daoud, N, Joshi, AS and Hart, CL (2012) ‘Spice’ and ‘K2’ herbal highs: a case series and systematic review of the clinical effects and biopsychosocial implications of synthetic cannabinoid use in humans. American Journal of Addiction 21, 320–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hajak, G, Müller, WE, Wittchen, HU, Pittrow, D and Kirch, W (2003) Abuse and dependence potential for the non-benzodiazepine hypnotics zolpidem and zopiclone: a review of case reports and epidemiological data. Addiction 98, 1371–1378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hermanns-Clausen, M, Kneisel, S, Szabo, B and Auwärter, V (2013) Acute toxicity due to the confirmed consumption of synthetic cannabinoids: clinical and laboratory findings. Addiction 108, 534–544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herzig, A, Brooks, R and Mohr, C (2013) Inferring about individual drug and schizotypy effects on cognitive functioning in polydrug using mephedrone users before and after clubbing. Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 28, 168–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hohmann, N, Mikus, G and Czock, D (2014) Effects and risks associated with novel psychoactive substances: mislabeling and sale as bath salts, spice, and research chemicals. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 111, 139.Google ScholarPubMed
Homman, L, Seglert, J and Morgan, MJ (2018) An observational study on the sub-acute effects of mephedrone on mood, cognition, sleep and physical problems in regular mephedrone users. Psychopharmacology 235, 2609–2618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hopkins, CY and Gilchrist, BL (2013) A case of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome caused by synthetic cannabinoids. Journal of Emergency Medicine 45, 544–546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Imam, SF, Patel, H, Mahmoud, M, Prakash, NA, King, MS and Fremont, RD (2013) Bath salts intoxication: a case series. Journal of Emergency Medicine 45, 361–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
John, ME, Thomas-Rozea, C and Hahn, D (2017) Bath salts abuse leading to new-onset psychosis and potential for violence. Clinical Schizophrenia & Related Psychoses 11, 120–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaizer-Będkowska, MJ and Kucia, KA (2018) The analysis of admissions to the Emergency Department of the Psychiatric Hospital in Bielsko-Biała connected with psychotic disorders induced by psychoactive drug use. Psychiatria i Psychologia Kliniczna 18, 160–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapil, V, Green, LG, Le Lait, C, Wood, DM and Dargan, PI (2014) Misuse of benzodiazepines and Z-drugs in the UK. British Journal of Psychiatry 205, 407–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karila, L, Megarbane, B, Cottencin, O and Lejoyeux, M (2015) Synthetic cathinones: a new public health problem. Current Neuropharmacology 13, 12–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karila, L, Billieux, J, Benyamina, A, Lançon, C and Cottencin, O (2016) The effects and risks associated to mephedrone and methylone in humans: a review of the preliminary evidences. Brain Research Bulletin 126, 61–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kehr, J, Ichinose, F, Yoshitake, S, Goiny, M, Sievertsson, T, Nyberg, F and Yoshitake, T (2011) Mephedrone, compared with MDMA (ecstasy) and amphetamine, rapidly increases both dopamine and 5-HT levels in nucleus accumbens of awake rats. British Journal of Pharmacology 164, 1949–1958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, L, Bangh, S and Cole, JB (2017) Intentional recreational abuse of quetiapine compared to other second-generation antipsychotics. The Western Journal of Emergency Medicine 18, 243–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lászik, A, Törő, K, Vannai, M, Sára-Klausz, G, Kócs, T, Farkas, R, Keller, É and Róna, K (2015) Self inflicted fatal injuries in association with synthetic cannabinoid abuse. 24th International Meeting on Forensic Medicine Alpe-Adria-Pannonia, AAP 2015 Programme and Abstract Book.Google Scholar
Lee, J, Pilgrim, J, Gerostamoulos, D, Robinson, J and Wong, A (2018) Increasing rates of quetiapine overdose, misuse, and mortality in Victoria, Australia. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 187, 95–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, VR, Vera, A, Alexander, A, Ruck, B, Nelson, LS, Wax, P, Campleman, S, Brent, J and Calello, DP (2019) Loperamide misuse to avoid opioid withdrawal and to achieve a euphoric effect: high doses and high risk. Clinical Toxicology (Phila) 57, 175–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linn, KA, Long, MT and Pagel, PS (2014) ‘Robo-Tripping’: dextromethorphan abuse and its anesthetic implications. Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine 4, e20990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, L, Wheeler, S, Venkataramanan, R, Rymer, JA, Pizon, FA, Lynch, JM and Tamama, K (2018) Newly emerging drugs of abuse and their detection methods. An ACLPS critical review. American Journal of Clinical Pathology 149, 105–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Louh, IK and Freeman, WD (2014) A ‘spicy’ encephalopathy: synthetic cannabinoids as cause of encephalopathy and seizure. Critical Care 18, 553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lovrecic, B and Lovrecic, M (2017) Novel psychoactive synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones: the never-ending story of potential clinical toxicity. Heroin Addiction and Related Clinical Problems. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Barbara_Lovrecic/publication/319554544_Novel_psychoactive_synthetic_cannabinoids_and_synthetic_cathinones_The_never-ending_story_of_potential_clinical_toxicity/links/59b3c8a70f7e9b37435210fb/ (Accessed 13 October 2018).Google Scholar
Lucyk, SN and Nelson, LS (2017) Novel synthetic opioids: an opioid epidemic within an opioid epidemic. Annals of Emergency Medicine 69, 91–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macfarlane, V and Christie, G (2015) Synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal: a new demand on detoxification services. Drug and Alcohol Review 34, 147–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maeda, H, Kikura-Hanajiri, R, Kawamura, M, Nagashima, E and Yoshida, KI (2018) AB-CHMINACA-induced sudden death from non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia) 56, 143–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marchei, E, Pacifici, R, Mannocchi, G, Marinelli, E, Busardò, FP and Pichini, S (2018) New synthetic opioids in biological and non-biological matrices: a review of current analytical methods. Trends in Analytical Chemistry 102, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marinetti, LJ and Antonides, HM (2013) Analysis of synthetic cathinones commonly found in bath salts in human performance and postmortem toxicology: method development, drug distribution and interpretation of results. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 37, 135–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinotti, G, Cinosi, E, Santacroce, R, Papanti, D, Pasquini, A, Mancini, V, Corbo, M, Fiori, F, Sarchione, F, Marchetti, D, Verrocchio, MC, Di Giannantonio, M, Torrens, M, Schifano, F, Morlan Coarasa, MJ and Merino Del Villar, C (2017) Substance-related psychopathology and aggressiveness in a nightlife holiday resort: results from a pilot study in a psychiatric inpatient unit in Ibiza. Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 32, e2586.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martinotti, G, Santacroce, R, Pettorruso, M, Montemitro, C, Spano, MC, Lorusso, M, di Giannantonio, M and Lerner, AG (2018) Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder: etiology, clinical features, and therapeutic perspectives. Brain Sciences 8, 47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mdege, ND, Meader, N, Lloyd, C, Parrott, S and McCambridge, J (2017) The novel psychoactive substances in the UK project: empirical and conceptual review work to produce research recommendations. UK: National Institute for Health Research 5, 1–166.Google Scholar
Miliano, C, Serpelloni, G, Rimondo, C, Mereu, M, Marti, M and De Luca, MA (2016) Neuropharmacology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): focus on the rewarding and reinforcing properties of cannabimimetics and amphetamine-like stimulants. Frontiers in Neuroscience 10, 153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mir, A, Obafemi, A, Young, A and Kane, C (2011) Myocardial infarction associated with use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2. Pediatrics 128, e1622–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moosmann, B, King, LA and Auwarter, V (2015) Designer benzodiazepines: a new challenge. World Psychiatry 14, 248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, H and Wallach, J (2014) From PCP to MXE: a comprehensive review of the non-medical use of dissociative drugs. Drug Testing and Analysis 6, 614–632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mugele, J, Nanagas, KA and Tormoehlen, LM (2012) Serotonin syndrome associated with MDPV use: a case report. Annals of Emergency Medicine 60, 100–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naviglio, S, Papanti, D, Moressa, V and Ventura, A (2015) An adolescent with an altered state of mind. British Medical Journal 350:h299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NPS.Finder® (2019) Available at http://npsfinder.com/ (Accessed 14 June 2019).Google Scholar
Olsen, JF (2018) The case of the Norwegian teen who died from synthetic cannabinoids. Drug Science, Policy and Law 4, 1–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oluwabusi, OO, Lobach, L, Akhtar, U, Youngman, B and Ambrosini, PJ (2012) Synthetic cannabinoid-induced psychosis: two adolescent cases. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 22, 393–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orsolini, L, Papanti, GD, Francesconi, G and Schifano, F (2015) Mind navigators of chemicals’ experimenters? A web-based description of e-psychonauts. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking 18, 296–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Otachbachi, M, Cevik, C, Bagdure, S and Nugent, K (2010) Excited delirium, restraints, and unexpected death. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 31, 107–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Papanti, D, Schifano, F, Botteon, G, Bertossi, F, Mannix, J, Vidoni, D, Impagnatiello, M, Pascolo-Fabrici, E and Bonavigo, T (2013) ‘Spiceophrenia’: a systematic overview of ‘spice’-related psychopathological issues and a case report. Human Psychopharmacology 28, 379–389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, G (2018) Guide to the management of gabapentinoid misuse. Available at http://www.prescriber.co.uk/article/guide-to-the-management-of-gabapentinoid-misuse/ (Accessed 4 October 2018).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patton, AL, Chimalakonda, KC, Moran, CL, McCain, KR, Radominska-Pandya, A, James, LP, Kokes, C and Moran, JH (2013) K2 toxicity: fatal case of psychiatric complications following AM2201 exposure. Journal of Forensic Sciences 58, 1676–1680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paul, ABM, Simms, L, Amini, S and Paul, AE (2018) Teens and spice: a review of adolescent fatalities associated with synthetic cannabinoid use. Journal of Forensic Sciences 63, 1321–1324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Penders, TM and Gestring, R (2011) Hallucinatory delirium following use of MDPV: ‘bath salts’. General Hospital Psychiatry 33, 525–526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penders, TM, Gestring, RE and Vilensky, DA (2012) Excited delirium following use of synthetic cathinones (bath salts). General Hospital Psychiatry 34, 647–650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prekupec, MP, Mansky, PA and Baumann, MH (2017) Misuse of novel synthetic opioids: a deadly new trend. Journal of Addiction Medicine 11, 256–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prosser, JM and Nelson, LS (2012) The toxicology of bath salts: a review of synthetic cathinones. Journal of Medical Toxicology 8, 33–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romanelli, F and Smith, KM (2009) Dextromethorphan abuse: clinical effects and management. Journal of the American Pharmacist Association 49, e20–e25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, DZ, Guerrero, WR and Mokin, MV (2015) Haemorrhagic stroke following use of the synthetic marijuana ‘spice’. Neurology 85, 1177–1179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenbaum, CD, Carreiro, SP and Babu, KM (2012) Here today, gone tomorrow…and back again? A review of herbal marijuana alternatives (K2, spice), synthetic cathinones (bath salts), kratom, Salvia divinorum, methoxetamine, and piperazines. Journal of Medical Toxicology 8, 5–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sansgiry, SS, Bhansali, AH, Bapat, SS and Xu, Q (2016) Abuse of over-the-counter medicines: a pharmacist's perspective. Integrated Pharmacy Research and Practice 6, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schifano, F and Chiappini, S (2018 a) Is there a potential of misuse for venlafaxine and bupropion? Frontiers in Pharmacology 9, 239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schifano, F and Chiappini, S (2018 b) Is there such a thing as a ‘lope’ dope? Analysis of loperamide-related European Medicines Agency (EMA) pharmacovigilance database reports. PLOS One 4, e0204443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schifano, F, Orsolini, L, Papanti, DG and Corkery, JM (2015) Novel psychoactive substances of interest for psychiatry. World Psychiatry 14, 15–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schifano, F, Papanti, GD, Orsolini, L and Corkery, JM (2016) Novel psychoactive substances: the pharmacology of stimulants and hallucinogens. Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology 9, 943–954.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schifano, F, Orsolini, L, Papanti, D and Corkery, J (2017) NPS: medical consequences associated with their intake. Current Topics in Behavioural Neuroscience 32, 351–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schifano, F, Chiappini, S, Corkery, JM and Guirguis, A (2018) Abuse of prescription drugs in the context of novel psychoactive substances (NPS): a systematic review. Brain Sciences 8, pii: E73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schifano, F, Chiappini, S, Corkery, JM and Guirguis, A (2019) An insight into Z-drug abuse and dependence: an examination of reports to the European Medicines Agency database of suspected adverse drug reactions. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 22, 270–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shafi, A, Gallagher, P, Stewart, N, Martinotti, G and Corazza, O (2017) The risk of violence associated with novel psychoactive substance misuse in patients presenting to acute mental health services. Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 32, e2606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shanks, KG, Dahn, T and Terrell, AR (2012) Detection of JWH-018 and JWH-073 by UPLC-MS-MS in postmortem whole blood casework. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 36, 145–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shenouda, R and Desan, PH (2013) Abuse of tricyclic antidepressant drugs: a case series. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 33, 440–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simmler, L, Buser, T, Donzelli, M, Schramm, Y, Dieu, LH, Huwyler, J and Liechti, M (2013) Pharmacological characterisation of designer cathinones in vitro. British Journal of Pharmacology 168, 458–470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonato, P, Corazza, O, Santonastaso, P, Corkery, J, Deluca, P, Davey, Z, Blaszko, U and Schifano, F (2013) Novel psychoactive substances as a novel challenge for health professionals: results from an Italian survey. Human Psychopharmacology 28, 324–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, JP, Sutcliffe, OB and Banks, CE (2015) An overview of recent developments in the analytical detection of new psychoactive substances (NPSs). The Analyst 140, 4932–4948.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solimini, R, Pichini, S, Pacifici, R, Busardò, FP and Giorgetti, R (2018) Pharmacotoxicology of non-fentanyl derived new synthetic opioids. Frontiers in Pharmacology 9, 654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spaderna, M, Addy, PH and D'Souza, DC (2013) Spicing things up: synthetic cannabinoids. Psychopharmacology 228, 525–540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutherland, R and Barratt, M (2016) New (and Emerging) Psychoactive Substances (NPS). National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, NDARC Fact sheet, University of New South Wales, Sidney, NSW, Australia. Available at https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/resource/new-and-emerging-psychoactive-substances-nps (Accessed 23 November 2018).Google Scholar
Suzuki, J and El-Haddad, S (2017) A review: fentanyl and non-pharmaceutical fentanyls. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 171, 107–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tait, RJ, Caldicott, D, Mountain, D, Hill, SL and Lenton, S (2015) A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clinical Toxicology 54, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tracy, D, Wood, DM and Baumeister, D (2017) Novel psychoactive substances: types, mechanisms of action, and effects. British Medical Journal 356, i6848.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trecki, J, Gerona, RR and Schwartz, MD (2015) Synthetic cannabinoid-related illnesses and deaths. The New England Journal of Medicine 373, 103–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
UNODC (2013) The Challenge of New Psychoactive Substances: A Report from the Global SMART Programme. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Available at https://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/NPS_2013_SMART.pdf (Accessed 23 November 2018).Google Scholar
UNODC (2018 a) Analysis of Drug Markets: Opiates, Cocaine, Cannabis, Synthetic Drugs. Vienna: UNODC. Available at http://www.unodc.org/wdr2018/prelaunch/WDR18_Booklet_3_DRUG_MARKETS.pdf (Accessed 21 October 2018).Google Scholar
UNODC (2018 b) World Drug Report 2018 Volume 3 – Analysis of Drug Markets: Opiates, Cocaine, Cannabis, Synthetic Drugs. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Available at https://www.unodc.org/wdr2018/ (Accessed 23 November 2018).Google Scholar
Ustundag, MF, Ozhan Ibis, E, Yucel, A and Ozcan, H (2015) Synthetic cannabis-induced mania. Case Reports in Psychiatry 2015, 310930.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Amsterdam, J and van den Brink, W (2015) The misuse of prescription opioids: a threat for Europe? Current Drug Abuse Reviews 8, 3–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vårdal, L, Wong, G, Øiestad, Å, Pedersen-Bjergaard, S, Gjelstad, A and Øiestad, E (2019) Rapid determination of designer benzodiazepines, benzodiazepines, and Z-hypnotics in whole blood using parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction and UHPLC-MS/MS. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 410, 4967–4978.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vento, AE, Schifano, F, Gentili, F, Pompei, F, Corkery, JM, Kotzalidis, GD and Girardi, P (2013) Bupropion perceived as a stimulant by two patients with a previous history of cocaine misuse. Annali dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità 49, 402–405.Google ScholarPubMed
Ventura, L, Carvalho, F and Dinis-Oliveira, RG (2018) Opioids in the frame of new psychoactive substances network: a complex pharmacological and toxicological issue. Current Molecular Pharmacology 11, 97–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Victorri-Vigneau, C, Dailly, E, Veyrac, G and Jolliet, P (2007) Evidence of zolpidem abuse and dependence: results of the French Centre for evaluation and information on pharmacodependence (CEIP) network survey. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 64, 198–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallach, J and Brandt, SD (2018) 1,2-Diarylethylamine- and ketamine-based New psychoactive substances. In Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing, pp. 51–67.Google Scholar
Wallach, J, Kang, H, Colestock, T, Morris, H, Bortolotto, ZA, Collingridge, GL, Lodge, D, Halbertstadt, AL, Brandt, sd and Adejare, A (2016) Pharmacological investigations of the dissociative ‘legal highs’ diphenidine, methoxphenidine and analogues. PLoS ONE 11, e0157021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warrick, BJ, Wilson, J, Hedge, M, Freeman, S, Leonard, K and Aaron, C (2013) Lethal serotonin syndrome after methylone and butylone ingestion. Journal of Medical Toxicology 8, 65–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, MF, Hopper, JA and Gunderson, EW (2015) Designer drugs 2015: assessment and management. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice 10, 8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wessinger, WD, Moran, JH and Seely, KA (2015) Synthetic cannabinoid effects on behavior and motivation. In Campolongo, P and Fattore, L (eds), Cannabinoid Modulation of Emotion, Memory, and Motivation. New York: Springer, pp. 205–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, MD, Ferguson, RW, Mazer, ME and Litovitz, TL (2011) Monitoring trends in dextromethorphan abuse using the national poison data system: 2000–2010. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia) 49, 409–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winstock, A (2010) Results of the 2009/10 Mixmag drug survey. Oral evidence to the ACMD. Available at http://www.namsdl.org/library/E2E84A68-1372-636C-DD0E8D3A508B5F48/ (Accessed 23 November 2018).Google Scholar
Winstock, AR and Barratt, MJ (2013 a) Synthetic cannabis: a comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1, 106–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winstock, AR and Barratt, MJ (2013 b) The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products. Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 28, 390–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winstock, A, Mitcheson, L, Ramsey, J, Davies, S, Puchnarewicz, M and Marsden, J (2011) Mephedrone: use, subjective effects and health risks. Addiction 106, 1991–1996.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, DM and Dargan, PI (2012) Novel psychoactive substances: how to understand the acute toxicity associated with the use of these substances. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 34, 363–367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organisation [WHO] (2017) Pregabalin prereview report. Available at www.who.int/medicines/access/controlled-substances/PrereviewPregabalin.pdf (Accessed 4 October 2018).Google Scholar
Zawilska, JB (2017) An expanding world of novel psychoactive substances: opioids. Frontiers in Psychiatry 8, 110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed