Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T19:32:00.109Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Neurodevelopmental disorders among Spanish school-age children: prevalence and sociodemographic correlates

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 January 2021

Rosa Bosch ,
Mireia Pagerols Open the ORCID record for Mireia Pagerols [Opens in a new window] ,
Cristina Rivas ,
Laura Sixto ,
Laura Bricollé ,
Gemma Español-Martín ,
Raquel Prat ,
Josep A. Ramos-Quiroga  and
Miquel Casas
Rosa Bosch
Affiliation:
Servei de Psiquiatria, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Grup de Psiquiatria, Salut Mental i Addiccions, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Departament de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
Mireia Pagerols*
Affiliation:
Servei de Psiquiatria, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Grup de Psiquiatria, Salut Mental i Addiccions, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain
Cristina Rivas
Affiliation:
Servei de Psiquiatria, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Grup de Psiquiatria, Salut Mental i Addiccions, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain
Laura Sixto
Affiliation:
Servei de Psiquiatria, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Grup de Psiquiatria, Salut Mental i Addiccions, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain
Laura Bricollé
Affiliation:
Servei de Psiquiatria, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Grup de Psiquiatria, Salut Mental i Addiccions, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain
Gemma Español-Martín
Affiliation:
Servei de Psiquiatria, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Grup de Psiquiatria, Salut Mental i Addiccions, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Departament de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
Raquel Prat
Affiliation:
Servei de Psiquiatria, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Grup de Psiquiatria, Salut Mental i Addiccions, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain
Josep A. Ramos-Quiroga
Affiliation:
Servei de Psiquiatria, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Grup de Psiquiatria, Salut Mental i Addiccions, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Departament de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
Miquel Casas
Affiliation:
Servei de Psiquiatria, Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Grup de Psiquiatria, Salut Mental i Addiccions, Vall d'Hebron Institut de Recerca (VHIR), Vall d'Hebron Hospital Universitari, Barcelona, Spain Departament de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain CIBER de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain UTAE Research Program, Hospital Sant Joan de Déu Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
*
Author for correspondence: Mireia Pagerols, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Prevalence estimates of neurodevelopmental disorders (ND) are essential for treatment planning. However, epidemiological research has yielded highly variable rates across countries, including Spain. This study examined the prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of ND in a school sample of Spanish children and adolescents.

Methods

The Child Behaviour Checklist/Teacher's Report Form/Youth Self-Report and the Conners' Rating Scales were administered for screening purposes. Additionally, teachers provided information on reading and writing difficulties. Subjects who screened positive were interviewed for diagnostic confirmation according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria. The final population comprised 6834 students aged 5–17. Multivariate analyses were performed to determine the influence of gender, age, educational stage, school type, socioeconomic status (SES), and ethnicity on the prevalence estimates.

Results

A total of 1249 (18.3%) subjects met criteria for at least one ND, although only 423 had already received a diagnosis. Specifically, the following prevalence rates were found: intellectual disabilities (ID), 0.63%; communication disorders, 1.05%; autism spectrum disorder (ASD), 0.70%; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 9.92%; specific learning disorder (SLD), 10.0%; and motor disorders, 0.76%. Students of foreign origin and from low SES evidenced higher odds of having ID. Boys were more likely to display ASD or a motor disorder. Age, SES, and ethnicity were significant predictors for SLD, while communication disorders and ADHD were also associated with gender.

Conclusions

The prevalence of ND among Spanish students is consistent with international studies. However, a substantial proportion had never been previously diagnosed, which emphasise the need for early detection and intervention programmes.

Keywords

AdolescentschildrenDSMneurodevelopmental disordersprevalenceschool-based sample
Type
Original Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 52 , Issue 14 , October 2022 , pp. 3062 - 3072
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abu-Hamour, B., & Al-Hmouz, H. (2016). Prevalence and pattern of learning difficulties in primary school students in Jordan. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 21, 99–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Achenbach, T. M. (1991a). Manual for the child behavior checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M. (1991b). Manual for the teacher's report form and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M. (1991c). Manual for the youth self-report and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Association.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Association.Google Scholar
Angold, A., Erkanli, A., Farmer, E. M. Z., Fairbank, J. A., Burns, B. J., Keeler, G., & Costello, E. J. (2002). Psychiatric disorder, impairment, and service use in rural African American and white youth. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 893–901.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bax, A. C., Bard, D. E., Cuffe, S. P., McKeown, R. E., & Wolraich, M. L. (2019). The association between race/ethnicity and socioeconomic factors and the diagnosis and treatment of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 40, 81–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyle, C. A., Boulet, S., Schieve, L. A., Cohen, R. A., Blumberg, S. J., Yeargin-Allsopp, M., … Kogan, M. D. (2011). Trends in the prevalence of developmental disabilities in US children, 1997–2008. Pediatrics, 127, 1034–1042.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyle, C. A., Decouflé, P., & Yeargin-Allsopp, M. (1994). Prevalence and health impact of developmental disabilities in US children. Pediatrics, 93, 399–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carballal Mariño, M., Gago Ageitos, A., Ares Alvarez, J., del Rio Garma, M., García Cendón, C., Goicoechea Castaño, A., … Pena Nieto, J. (2018). Prevalencia de trastornos del neurodesarrollo, comportamiento y aprendizaje en atención primaria [Prevalence of neurodevelopmental, behavioural and learning disorders in pediatric primary care]. Anales de Pediatría (Barcelona), 89, 153–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrillo, M. S., Alegría, J., Miranda, P., & Sánchez, N. (2011). Evaluación de la dislexia en la escuela primaria: Prevalencia en español [Evaluating dyslexia in primary school children: Prevalence in Spanish]. Escritos de Psicología, 4, 35–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catalá-López, F., Peiró, S., Ridao, M., Sanfélix-Gimeno, G., Gènova-Maleras, R., & Catalá, M. A. (2012). Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in Spain: A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. BMC Psychiatry, 12, 168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, W., Zhou, K., Sham, P., Franke, B., Kuntsi, J., Campbell, D., … Asherson, P. (2008). DSM-IV combined type ADHD shows familial association with sibling trait scores: A sampling strategy for QTL linkage. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147B, 1450–1460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Col⋅legi de Logopedes de Catalunya (2011). PRODISCAT. Protocol de detecció i actuació en la dislèxia. Àmbit educatiu. Barcelona: Departament d'Ensenyament de la Generalitat de Catalunya.Google Scholar
Conners, C. K. (1997). The Conners’ rating scales–revised: Technical manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Cuadro, A., von Hagen, A., & Costa Ball, D. (2017). Procedural differences in the calculation of the prevalence of reading difficulties in Spanish-speaking school children. Estudios de Psicología, 38, 169–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cubo, E., Trejo Gabriel y Galán, J. M., Ausín Villaverde, V., Sáez Velasco, S., Delgado Benito, V., Vicente Macarrón, J., … Benito-León, J. (2011). Prevalence of tics in schoolchildren in central Spain: A population-based study. Pediatric Neurology, 45, 100–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cuetos, F., Arribas, D., & Ramos, J. L. (2016). PROLEC-SE-R. Batería de evaluación de los procesos lectores en secundaria y bachillerato – revisada. Madrid: TEA Ediciones.Google Scholar
Cuetos, F., Ramos, J. L., & Ruano, E. (2002). PROESC. Evaluación de los procesos de escritura. Madrid: TEA Ediciones.Google Scholar
Cuetos, F., Rodríguez, B., Ruano, E., & Arribas, D. (2007). PROLEC-R: Batería de evaluación de los procesos lectores. Revisada. Madrid: TEA Ediciones.Google Scholar
Delgado-Lobete, L., Santos-Del-Riego, S., Pértega-Díaz, S., & Montes-Montes, R. (2019). Prevalence of suspected developmental coordination disorder and associated factors in Spanish classrooms. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 86, 31–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dockrell, J., & Hurry, J. (2018). The identification of speech and language problems in elementary school: Diagnosis and co-occurring needs. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 81, 52–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DuPaul, G. J., Kern, L., Caskie, G. I. L., & Volpe, R. J. (2015). Early intervention for young children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Prediction of academic and behavioral outcomes. School Psychology Review, 44, 3–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durkin, M. S., Maenner, M. J., Baio, J., Christensen, D., Daniels, J., Fitzgerald, R., … Yeargin-Allsopp, M. (2017). Autism spectrum disorder among US children (2002–2010): Socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic disparities. American Journal of Public Health, 107, 1818–1826.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fombonne, E. (2009). Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders. Pediatric Research, 65, 591–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ford, T., Goodman, R., & Meltzer, H. (2003). The British child and adolescent mental health survey 1999: The prevalence of DSM-IV disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1203–1211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fortea, M. S., Escandell, M. O., & Castro, J. J. (2013). Estimated prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in the Canary Islands. Anales de Pediatría, 79, 352–359.Google Scholar
Fortes, I. S., Paula, C. S., Oliveira, M. C., Bordin, I. A., de Jesus Mari, J., & Rohde, L. A. (2016). A cross-sectional study to assess the prevalence of DSM-5 specific learning disorders in representative school samples from the second to sixth grade in Brazil. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 25, 195–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
García-Jiménez, M. C., López-Pisón, J., & Blasco-Arellano, M. M. (2005). El pediatra de atención primaria en el trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad. Planteamiento tras un estudio de población [The primary care paediatrician in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. An approach involving a population study]. Revista de Neurología, 41, 75–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García-Mateos, M., Mayor Cinca, M. A., de Santiago Herrero, J., & Zubiauz de Pedro, B. (2014). Prevalencia de las patologías del habla, del lenguaje y de la comunicación. Un estudio a lo largo del ciclo vital [Prevalence of speech, language and communication disorders. A study throughout the life cycle]. Revista de Logopedia, Foniatría y Audiología, 34, 163–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldfield, S. R., & Hayes, L. (2012). Factors influencing child mental health: A state-wide survey of Victorian children. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 48, 1065–1070.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González, D., Jiménez, J. E., García, E., Díaz, A., Rodríguez, C., Crespo, P., & Artiles, C. (2010). Prevalencia de las dificultades específicas de aprendizaje en la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria. European Journal of Education and Psychology, 3, 317–327.Google Scholar
Guevara, J. P., Gerdes, M., Localio, R., Huang, Y. V., Pinto-Martin, J., Minkovitz, C. S., … Pati, S. (2013). Effectiveness of developmental screening in an urban setting. Pediatrics, 131, 30–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, A. P., Zuckerman, K., & Fombonne, E. (2014). Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders. In Volkmar, F. R., Rogers, S. J., Paul, R. & Pelphrey, K. A. (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Diagnosis, development, and brain mechanisms (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 57–96). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Hollingshead, A. B. (2011). Four factor index of social status. Yale Journal of Sociology, 8, 21–52.Google Scholar
Hughes-McCormack, L. A., Rydzewska, E., Henderson, A., MacIntyre, C., Rintoul, J., & Cooper, S. A. (2018). Prevalence and general health status of people with intellectual disabilities in Scotland: A total population study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 72, 78–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiménez, J. E., García de la Cadena, C., Siegel, L. S., O'Shanahan, I., García, E., & Rodríguez, C. (2011). Gender ratio and cognitive profiles in dyslexia: A cross-national study. Reading and Writing, 24, 729–747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiménez, J. E., Guzmán, R., Rodríguez, C., & Artiles, C. (2009). Prevalencia de las dificultades específicas de aprendizaje: La dislexia en español [Prevalence of specific learning disabilities: The case of dyslexia in Spain]. Anales de Psicología, 25, 78–85.Google Scholar
Karande, S., & Kulkarni, M. (2005). Specific learning disability: The invisible handicap. Indian Pediatrics, 42, 315–319.Google ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., … Ryan, N. (1997). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–988.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knight, T., Steeves, T., Day, L., Lowerison, M., Jette, N., & Pringsheim, T. (2012). Prevalence of tic disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatric Neurology, 47, 77–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linazasoro, G., Van Blercom, N., & Ortiz de Zárate, C. (2006). Prevalence of tic disorder in two schools in the Basque country: Results and methodological caveats. Movement Disorders, 21, 2106–2109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madsen, K. B., Ravn, M. H., Arnfred, J., Olsen, J., Rask, C. U., & Obel, C. (2018). Characteristics of undiagnosed children with parent-reported ADHD behaviour. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 149–158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGuire, D. O., Tian, L. H., Yeargin-Allsopp, M., Dowling, N. F., & Christensen, D. L. (2019). Prevalence of cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, hearing loss, and blindness, National Health Interview Survey, 2009–2016. Disability and Health Journal, 12, 443–451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Brody, D., Fisher, P. W., Bourdon, K., & Koretz, D. S. (2010). Prevalence and treatment of mental disorders among US children in the 2001–2004 NHANES. Pediatrics, 125, 75–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moll, K., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., Bruder, J., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2014). Specific learning disorder: Prevalence and gender differences. PLoS ONE, 9, e103537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morales-Hidalgo, P., Roigé-Castellví, J., Hernández-Martínez, C., Voltas, N., & Canals, J. (2018). Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among Spanish school-age children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48, 3176–3190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pennington, B. F., Peterson, R. L., & McGrath, L. M. (2009). Dyslexia. Chapter 6. In Pennington, B. F. (Ed.), Diagnosing learning disorders: A neuropsychological framework (2nd edn., pp. 45–82). New York, NY: Guilford.Google Scholar
Petrenko, C. L. M. (2013). A review of intervention programs to prevent and treat behavioral problems in young children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 25, 651–679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinborough-Zimmerman, J., Satterfield, R., Miller, J., Bilder, D., Hossain, S., & McMahon, W. (2007). Communication disorders: Prevalence and comorbid intellectual disability, autism, and emotional/behavioral disorders. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 16, 359–367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodhe, L. A., Biederman, J., Busnello, E. A., Zimmermann, H., Schmitz, M., Martins, S., & Tramontina, S. (1999). ADHD In a school sample of Brazilian adolescents: A study of prevalence, comorbid conditions, and impairments. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 716–722.Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, S., & Simon, P. (2016). Speech and language disorders in children: Implications for the social security administration's supplemental security income program. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenberg, L., Maeir, A., Yochman, A., Dahan, I., & Hirsch, I. (2015). Effectiveness of a cognitive-functional group intervention among preschoolers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A pilot study. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 69, 6903220040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sayal, K., Prasad, V., Daley, D., Ford, T., & Coghill, D. (2018). ADHD in children and young people: Prevalence, care pathways, and service provision. The Lancet. Psychiatry, 5, 175–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sexton, C. C., Gelhorn, H. L., Bell, J. A., & Classi, P. M. (2012). The co-occurrence of reading disorder and ADHD: Epidemiology, treatment, psychosocial impact, and economic burden. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45, 538–564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, K. C., Ellis, A. R., McLaurin, C., Daniels, J., & Morrissey, J. P. (2007). Access to care for autism-related services. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1902–1912.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toro, J., & Cervera, M. (1991). Test de análisis de la lecto-escritura. Madrid: Aprendizaje-Visor.Google Scholar
Vicente, B., Saldivia, S., de la Barra, F., Kohn, R., Pihan, R., Valdivia, M., … Melipillan, R. (2012). Prevalence of child and adolescent mental disorders in Chile: A community epidemiological study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 1026–1035.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler intelligence scale for children–fourth edition (WISC-IV). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2014). Wechsler intelligence scale for children–fifth edition (WISC-V). San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.Google Scholar
Werling, D. M., & Geschwind, D. H. (2013). Sex differences in autism spectrum disorders. Current Opinion in Neurology, 26, 146–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westerinen, H., Kaski, M., Virta, L. J., Kautiainen, H., Pitkälä, K. H., & Iivanainen, M. (2017). The nationwide register-based prevalence of intellectual disability during childhood and adolescence. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 61, 802–809.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willcutt, E. G. (2012). The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. A meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics, 9, 490–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolraich, M. L., McKeown, R. E., Visser, S. N., Bard, D., Cuffe, S., Neas, B., … Danielson, M. (2014). The prevalence of ADHD: Its diagnosis and treatment in four school districts across two states. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18, 563–575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zheng, X.–Y., Zhang, L., Chen, G., Pei, L.–J., & Song, X.–M. (2008). Prevalence of visual, hearing, speech, physical, intellectual and mental disabilities in China, 2006. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi, 29, 634–638.Google ScholarPubMed
Zwaigenbaum, L., Bauman, M. L., Choueiri, R., Kasari, C., Carter, A., Granpeesheh, D., … Natowicz, M. R. (2015). Early intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder under 3 years of age: Recommendations for practice and research. Pediatrics, 136, S60–S81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed