Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T00:33:53.612Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The neurodevelopmental basis of sex differences in schizophrenia1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 July 2009

David J. Castle  and
Robin M. Murray
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. As you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Editorials
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 21 , Issue 3 , August 1991 , pp. 565 - 575
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1991

References

Al-Issa, I. (1985). Sex differences in the aetiology of schizophrenia. International Review of Applied Psychology 34, 315–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amato, M., Howald, H. & von Muralt, G. (1987). Fetal sex and distribution of peri-ventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants. European Journal of Neurology 27, 20–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andreasen, N. C., Dennert, J. W., Olsen, S. A. & Damasio, A. R. (1982). Hemispheric asymmetries and schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 139, 427–430.Google ScholarPubMed
Andreasen, N. C., Nasrallah, H. A., Dunn, V., Olson, S. C., Grove, W. M., Ehrhardt, J. C., Coffman, J. A. & Crossett, J. H. W. (1986). Structural abnormalities in the frontal system in schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry 43, 136–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andereasen, N. C., Swayze, V. W., Flaum, M., Yates, W. R., Pahl, J.J., Arndt, S. & McChesney, C. (1989). Ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia evaluated with CT scanning.Paper presented at American Psychiatric Association Meeting,San Francisco.Google Scholar
Andrews, G. & Harris, M. (1964). The syndrome of stuttering. Clinics in Developmental Medicine, number 17. Heinemann: London.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, M. C. (1985). Zur Frage geschlechtsabhängiger Unterschiede im Verlauf schizophrener Krankheit. Lecture given at the Central Institute of Mental Health, Mannheim.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, M. C. & Kuhn, L. (1988). Gender differences in age at onset of schizophrenia: an overview. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences 237, 351–364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angermeyer, M. C., Goldstein, J. M. & Kuehn, L. (1989). Gender differences in schizophrenia: rehospitalization and community survival. Psychological Medicine 19, 365–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aylward, E., Walker, E. & Bettes, B. (1984). Intelligence in schizophrenia: Meta-analysis of the research. Schizophrenia Bulletin 10, 430–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Babigian, H. M. (1975). Schizophrenia: epidemiology. In Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 2nd edn (ed. Freedman, A. M., Kaplan, H. & Sadock, B. J.), pp. 861–866. Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore.Google Scholar
Bellodi, L., Bussoleni, C., Scorza-Smeraldi, R., Grassi, G., Zacchetti, L. & Smeraldi, E. (1986). Family study of schizophrenia: exploratory analysis for relevant factors. Schizophrenia Bulletin 12, 120–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogerts, B., Meertz, E. & Schonfeldt-Bausch, R. (1985). Basal ganglia and limbic system pathology in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 42, 784–791.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogerts, B., Ashtari, M., Degreef, G., Alvir, J., Bilder, R. & Lieberman, J. (1990 a). Reduced temporal limbic structure volumes on magnetic resonance images in first episode schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 35, 1–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogerts, B., Falkai, P., Haupts, M., Greve, B., Ernst, S., Tapernon-Franz, V. & Heinzmann, W. (1990 b). Post-mortem volume measurements of limbic system and basal ganglia structures in chronic schizophrenics. Schizophrenia Research (in the press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, J. H. & Weissman, M. M. (1981). Epidemiology of affective disorders: a re-examination and future directions. Archives of General Psychiatry 38, 1039–1046.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broman, S., Nichols, P. L., Shaughnessy, P. & Kennedy, W. (1987). Retardation in Young Children: A Developmental Study of Cognitive Deficit. Lawrence Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ.Google Scholar
Brown, R., Colter, N., Corsellis, J., Crow, T. J., Frith, C. D., Jagoe, R., Johnstone, E. C. & Marsh, L. (1986). Post-mortem evidence of structural brain changes in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 43, 36–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryson, S. E., Clark, B. S. & Smith, I. M. (1988). First report of a Canadian epidemiological study of autistic syndromes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 29, 433–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chi, J. G., Dooling, E. C. & Gilles, F. H. (1977). Gyral development of the human brain. Annals of Neurology 1, 86–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, J. E., Goodhead, D., Craig, T., Harris, M., Howat, J. & Korer, J. (1987). The incidence of schizophrenia in Nottingham. British Journal of Psychiatry 151, 619–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crow, T. J. (1985). The two-syndrome concept: origins and current status. Schizophrenia Bulletin 11, 471–485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crow, T. J., Ball, J., Bloom, S. R., Brown, R., Bruton, C. J., Colter, N., Frith, C. D., Johnstone, E. C., Owens, D. G. C. & Roberts, G. W. (1989). Schizophrenia as an anomaly of development of cerebral asymmetry: a post-mortem study and a proposal concerning the genetic basis of the disease. Archives of General Psychiatry 46, 1145–1150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cutting, J. C., Clare, A. W. & Mann, A. H. (1978). Cycloid psychosis: investigation of the diagnostic concept. Psychological Medicine 8, 637–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Lisi, L. E., Goldin, L. R., Maxwell, M. E., Kazuba, D. M. & Gershon, E. S. (1987). Clinical features of illness in siblings with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 891–896.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Lisi, L. E., Dauphinais, I. D. & Hauser, P. (1989). Gender differences in the brain: are they relevant to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia? Comprehensive Psychiatry 30, 197–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, M. C. (1989). Sex and the cerebral cortex. Comprehensive Psychiatry 30, 823–825.Google Scholar
Dohrenwend, B. S. & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1976). Sex differences in psychiatric disorders. American Journal of Sociology 81, 1447–1454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farina, A., Garmezy, N. & Barry, H. (1963). Relationship of marital status to incidence and prognosis of schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 67, 624–630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flor-Henry, P. (1985). Schizophrenia: sex differences. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 30, 319–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foerster, A., Lewis, S. W., Owen, M. J. & Murray, R. M. (1991 a). Pre-morbid personality in psychosis: effects of sex and diagnosis. British Journal of Psychiatry (in the press).Google Scholar
Foerster, A., Lewis, S. W., Owen, M. J. & Murray, R. M. (1991 b). Low birth weight and a family history of schizophrenia predict poor pre-morbid functioning in psychosis. Schizophrenia Research (in the press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1974). Children at risk: the search for the antecedents of schizophrenia. I. Conceptual models and research methods. Schizophrenia Bulletin 8, 14–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geschwind, N. & Galaburda, A. M. (1985). Cerebral lateralisation: Biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology. I. A hypothesis and programme for research. Archives of Neurology 42, 428–459.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, M., Taylor, C. & Murray, R. M. (1989). Schizophrenia research: attempting to integrate genetics, neurodevelopment and nosology. International Review of Psychiatry 1, 277–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, S. C., Schooler, N. R., Davidson, E. M. & Kayce, M. M. (1966). Sex and race differences in response to drug treatment among schizophrenics. Psychopharmacologica (Berlin) 9, 31–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, J. M. & Link, B. G. (1988). Gender and the expression of schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research 22, 141–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, J. M., Tsuang, M. T. & Faraone, S. V. (1989). Gender and schizophrenia: implications for understanding the heterogeneity of the illness. Psychiatry Research 28, 243–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, J. M., Santangelo, S. L., Simpson, J. C. & Tsuang, M. T. (1990). The role of gender in identifying subtypes of schizophrenia: a latent class analytic approach. Schizophrenia Bulletin 16, 263–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, M. J., Rodnick, E. H., Evans, J. R., May, P. R. A. & Steinberg, M. R. (1978). Drug and family therapy in the aftercare of acute schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry 35, 1169–1177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, R. (1990). Developmental disorders and structural brain development. In Biological Risk Factors for Psychosocial Development (ed. Rutter, M. & Casaer, P.). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge (in the press).Google Scholar
Government Statistical Office (1986). Statistical Bulletin of Department of Health and Social Security. HMSO: London.Google Scholar
Green, M. F., Satz, P., Gaier, D. J., Ganzell, S. & Kharabi, F. (1989). Minor physical anomalies in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 15, 91–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grimm, V. E. & Frieder, B. (1985). Differential vulnerability of male and female rats to the timing of various perinatal insults. International Journal of Neuroscience 27, 155–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunderson, J. G. & Siever, L. J. (1985). Relatedness of schizotypal to schizophrenic disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin 11, 532–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guy, J. D., Majorski, L. V., Wallace, C. J. & Guy, M. P. (1983). The incidence of minor physical anomalies in adult male schizophrenics. Schizophrenia Bulletin 9, 571–582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haas, G. L., Sweeney, J. A., Keilp, J. & Frances, A. J. (1989). Sex differences of neurocognition of schizophrenia.Paper presented at American Psychiatric Association Meeting,San Francisco.Google Scholar
Hadders-Algra, M., Touwen, B. C. & Huisjes, H. J. (1986). Neurologically deviant newborns: neurological and behavioural development at the age of six years. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 28, 569–578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Häfner, H. (1987). Epidemiology of schizophrenia. In Search for the Causes of Schizophrenia (ed. Häfner, H., Gattaz, W. F. & Janzarik, W.), pp. 47–74. Springer-Verlag: Berlin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Häfner, H., Riecher, A., Maurer, K., Löffler, W., Munk-Jørgensen, P. & Strömgren, E. (1989). How does gender influence age at first hospitalisation for schizophrenia? A translational case register study. Psychological Medicine 19, 903–918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, M. J. & Jeste, D. V. (1988). Late-onset schizophrenia: an overview. Schizophrenia Bulletin 14, 39–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, I., Williams, M., Toone, B. K., Lewis, S. W., Turner, S. W. & McGuffin, P. (1990). The ventricular–brain ratio (VBR) in functional psychoses: the relationship of lateral ventricular and total intracranial area. Psychological Medicine 20, 55–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jakob, H. & Beckmann, H. (1986). Prenatal developmental disturbances in the limbic allocortex in schizophrenics. Journal of Neural Transmission 65, 303–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnstone, E. C., Owens, D. G. C., Crow, T. J., Frith, C. D., Alexanderopolis, K., Bydder, G. & Colter, N. (1989 a). Temporal lobe structure as determined by nuclear magnetic resonance in schizophrenia and bipolar affective disorder. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 52, 736–741.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnstone, E. C., Owens, D. G. C., Bydder, G. M., Colter, N., Crow, T. J. & Frith, C. D. (1989 b). The spectrum of structural brain changes in schizophrenia: age of onset as a predictor of cognitive and clinical impairments and their cerebral correlates. Psychological Medicine 19, 91–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katsanis, J. & Iacono, W. G. (1989). Association of left-handedness with ventricle size and neuropsychological performance in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 146, 1056–1058.Google ScholarPubMed
Katschnig, H. & Lenz, G. (1988). Are sex differences in age at onset of schizophrenia related to phenomenological subtypes? Schizophrenia Research 1, 111–112.Google Scholar
Kay, D. W. K. & Roth, M. (1961). Environmental and hereditary factors in the schizophrenias of old age (‘ late paraphrenia ’) and their bearing on the general problem of causation in schizophrenia. Journal of Mental Science 107, 649–686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kay, S. R., Opler, L. A. & Fiszbein, A. (1986). Significance of positive and negative syndroms in chronic schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 149, 439–448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendell, R. E. (1988). Other functional psychoses. In Companion to Psychiatric Studies (ed. Kendell, R. E. & Zealley, A. K.), pp. 362–373. Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S. (1985). Diagnostic approaches to schizotypal personality disorder: a historical perspective. Schizophrenia Bulletin 11, 538–553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S. & Hays, P. (1983). Schizophrenia subdivided by the family history of affective disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 40, 951–955.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S. & Tsuang, M. T. (1988). Outcome and familial psychopathology in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 45, 338–346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klorman, R., Strauss, J. S. & Kokes, R. F. (1977). Pre-morbid adjustment in schizophrenia: III. The relationship of demographic and diagnostic factors to measure of pre-morbid adjustment in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 3, 214–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraepelin, E. (1896). Psychiatrie: ein Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aerzte. Barth: Leipzig.Google Scholar
Kringlen, E. (1987). Contributions of genetic studies on schizophrenia. In Search for the Causes of Schizophrenia (ed. Häfner, H., Gattaz, W. F. & Janarik, W.), pp. 123–143. Springer-Verlag: Heidelberg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitt, J. J. & Tsuang, M. T. (1988). The heterogeneity of schizo-affective disorder: implications for treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 145, 926–936.Google ScholarPubMed
Lewine, R. J. (1981). Sex differences in schizophrenia: timing or subtypes? Psychological Bulletin 90, 432–444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewine, R. J. (1988). Gender and schizophrenia. In Handbook of Schizophrenia, volume 3 (ed. Nasrallah, H. A.), pp. 379–397. Elsevier: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Lewine, R. J., Strauss, J. S. & Gift, T. E. (1981). Sex differences in age at first hospital admission for schizophrenia: fact or artifact? American Journal of Psychiatry 138, 440–444.Google ScholarPubMed
Lewine, R. J., Burbach, D. & Meltzer, H. Y. (1984). Effect of diagnostic criteria on the ratio of male to female schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 141, 84–87.Google ScholarPubMed
Lewine, R. J., Schwartzberg, D. G., Walker, E., Ninan, P. T., Risch, S. C. & Houpt, J. L. (1989). Sex differences in brain structure and schizophrenia.Paper presented at American Psychiatric Association Meeting,San Fransisco.Google Scholar
Lewis, S. W. (1989). Congenital risk factors for schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 19, 5–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, S. W. & Murray, R. M. (1987). Obstetric complications, neurodevelopmental deviance, and risk of schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research 21, 413–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, S. W., Murray, R. M. & Owen, M. (1988). Obstetric complications in schizophrenia: methodology and mechanisms. In Schizophrenia: A Scientific Focus (ed. Tamminga, C. A. & Schulz, S. C.), pp. 56–59. Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Loranger, A. W. (1984). Sex difference in age at onset of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 41, 157–161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCabe, M. S., Fowler, R. C., Cadoret, R. J. & Winoker, G. (1971). Familial differences in schizophrenia with good and poor prognosis. Psychological Medicine 1, 326–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGlone, J. (1980). Sex differences in human brain asymmetry: a critical survey. Behavioural and Brain Sciences 3, 215–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNeil, T. F. (1988). Obstetric factors and perinatal injuries. In Handbook of Schizophrenia, Vol. 3 (ed. Nasrallah, H. A.), pp. 319–344. Elsevier: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Merrin, E. L. (1984). Motor and sighting dominance in chronic schizophrenics: relationship to social competence, age at first admission, and clinical course. British Journal of Psychiatry 145, 401–406CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morstyn, R., Duffy, F. H. & McCarley, R. W. (1983). Altered P300 topography in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 40, 729–734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, R. M. & Lewis, S. W. (1987). Is schizophrenia a neurodevelopmental disorder? British Medical Journal 295, 681–682.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, R. M., Reveley, A. M. & Lewis, S. W. (1988). Family history, obstetric complications and cerebral abnormality in schizophrenia. In Handbook of Schizophrenia, Vol. 3 (ed. Nasrallah, H. A.), pp. 563–577. Elsevier: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Nasrallah, H. A. & Wilcox, J. A. (1989). Gender differences in the etiology and symptoms of schizophrenia: genetic versus brain injury factors. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 1, 51–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nasrallah, H. A., Keelor, K., Van Schroeder, C. & Whitters, M. McC (1981). Motoric lateralisation in schizophrenic males. American Journal of Psychiatry 138, 1114–1115.Google ScholarPubMed
Nasrallah, H. A., Olson, S. C., McCalley-Whitters, M., Chapman, S. & Jacoby, C. G. (1986). Cerebral ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia. A preliminary follow-up study. Archives of General Psychiatry 43, 157–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicole, L., Lesage, A. & Lalonde, P. (1990). Gender differences in schizophrenia in Montreal.Paper presented at Schizophrenia 1990 Conference,Vancouver.Google Scholar
Nimgaonkar, V. L., Wessely, S. & Murray, R. M. (1988). Prevalence of familiality, obstetric complications, and structural brain damage in schizophrenic patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 153, 191–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noreik, K. & Odegaard, O. (1966). Psychoses in Norwegians with a background of higher education. British Journal of Psychiatry 112, 43–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Callaghan, M. J., Tudehope, D. I., Dugdale, A. E., Mohay, H., Burns, Y. & Cook, F. (1987). Handedness in children with birthweights below 1000 g. Lancet i, 1155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Callaghan, E., Larkin, C. & Waddington, J. L. (1988). Clinical correlates of obstetric complications in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 1, 125.Google Scholar
O'Callaghan, E., Larkin, C. & Waddington, J. L. (1990). Obstetric complications in schizophrenia and the validity of maternal recall. Psychological Medicine 20, 89–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Offord, D. R. (1974). School performance of adult schizophrenics, their siblings and age mates. British Journal of Psychiatry 125, 12–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Offord, D. R. & Cross, L. A. (1969). Behavioural antecedents of adult schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 21, 267–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owen, M. J., Lewis, S. W. & Murray, R. M. (1988). Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: a computed tomographic study. Psychological Medicine 18, 331–339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owen, M. J., Lewis, S. W. & Murray, R. M. (1989). Family history and cerebral ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia: a case control study. British Journal of Psychiatry 154, 629–634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearlson, G. D., Garbacz, D. J., Moberg, P. J., Ahn, H. S. & de Paulo, J. R. (1985). Symptomatic, familial, perinatal, and social correlates of computerised axial tomography (CAT) changes in schizophrenia and bipolars. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 173, 42–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearlson, G. D., Kim, W. S., Kubos, K. L., Moberg, P. J., Jayaram, G., Bascom, M. J., Chase, G. A., Goldfinger, A. D. & Tune, L. E. (1989). Ventricle–brain ratio, computed tomographic density, and brain area in 50 schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry 46, 690–697.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piran, N., Bigler, E. D. & Cohen, D. (1982). Motoric laterality and eye dominance suggest unique pattern of cerebral organisation in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 39, 1006–1010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pogue-Geile, M. F. & Zubin, J. (1988). Negative symptomatology and schizophrenia: a conceptual and empirical review. International Journal of Mental Health 16, 3–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pope, H. G. & Lipinsky, J. F. (1978). Diagnosis in schizophrenia and manic depressive illness. Archives of General Psychiatry 35, 811–828.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Randall, P. L. (1983). Schizophrenia, abnormal connection, and brain evolution. Medical Hypotheses 10, 247–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rantakallio, P. & von Wendt, L. (1985). Prognosis for low-birthweight infants up to the age of 14: a population study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 27, 655–663.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reischies, F. M. (1989). Neuropsychology of the development of cognitive and emotional symptoms of schizophrenic patients using the connectivity model (personal communication).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reveley, M. A. (1988). Cerebral Ventricular Size and Brain Density in Schizophrenia. M.D. thesis, University of London.Google Scholar
Reveley, M. A., Reveley, A. M. & Baldy, R. (1987). Left hemisphere hypodensity in discordant schizophrenic twins: a controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 625–632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, G. P. (1983). Increased concentrations and lateral asymmetry of amygdala dopamine in schizophrenia. Nature 305, 527–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riecher, A., Maurer, K., Loffler, W., Fatkenheuer, B., an der Heiden, W. & Häfner, H. (1989). Schizophrenia – a disease of young single males? European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences 239, 210–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rieder, R. O. & Nichols, P. L. (1979). Offspring of schizophrenics. III. Hyperactivity and neurological soft signs. Archives of General Psychiatry 36, 665–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rieder, R. O., Broman, S. H. & Rosenthal, D. (1977). The offspring of schizophrenics. II. Perinatal factors and IQ. Archives of General Psychiatry 34, 789–799.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Weissman, M. M., Orvaschel, H., Gruenberg, E., Burke, J. D. & Regier, D. A. (1984). Lifetime prevalence of specific psychiatric disorders in three sites. Archives of General Psychiatry 41, 949–958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenthal, D. (1962). Familial concordance by sex with respect to schizophrenia. Psychological Bulletin 59, 401–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenthal, D. (1970). Genetic Theory and Abnormal Behaviour. McGraw-Hill: New York.Google Scholar
Ross, G., Lipper, E. G. & Auld, P. A. M. (1987). Hand preference of four-year-old children: its relationship to premature birth and neurodevelopmental outcome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 29, 615–622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. & Tizard, J. (1970). Intellectual and educational retardation: prevalence and cognitive characteristics. In Education, Health and Behaviour (ed. Rutter, M., Tizard, J. & Whitmore, K.), pp. 39–53. Longman: London.Google Scholar
Sartorius, N., Jablensky, A., Korten, A., Ernberg, G., Anker, M., Cooper, J. E. & Day, R. (1986). Early manifestations and first-contact incidence of schizophrenia in different cultures. Psychological Medicine 16, 909–928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satz, P. (1972). Pathological left-handedness: an explanatory model. Cortex 8, 121–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, M. V. (1982). Gender differences in schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 27, 107–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, M. V. (1983). Interaction of age, sex and neuroleptic dose. Comprehensive Psychiatry 24, 125–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, M. V. (1985). Sex and schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 30, 313–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, M. V. (1986). Current outcome in schizophrenia: women vs men. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 73, 609–617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, M. V. (1989). Prenatal gonadal hormones and schizophrenia in men and women. Psychiatric Journal of The University of Ottawa 14, 473–475.Google ScholarPubMed
Shelton, R. C. & Weinberger, D. R. (1986). X-ray computerized tomography studies in schizophrenia: a review and synthesis. In The Neurology of Schizophrenia (ed. Nasrallah, H. A. & Weinberger, D. R.), pp. 207–250. Elsevier: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Shepherd, M., Watt, D., Falloon, I. & Smeeton, N. (1989). The Natural History of Schizophrenia: A Five- Year Follow-up Study of Outcome and Prediction in a Representative Sample of Schizophrenics. Psychological Medicine, Supplement 15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shimizu, A., Kurachi, M., Noda, M., Yamaguchi, N., Torri, H. & Isaki, K. (1988 a). Influence of sex on age at onset of schizophrenia. Japanese Journal of Psychiatry and Neurology 42, 35–40.Google ScholarPubMed
Shimizu, A., Kurachi, M., Yamaguchi, N., Torii, H. & Isaki, K. (1988 b). Does family history of schizophrenia influence age at onset of schizophrenia? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 78, 716–719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strömgren, E. (1987). Changes in the incidence of schizophrenia? British Journal of Psychiatry 150, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suddath, R. L., Christison, G. W., Torrey, E. F., Casanova, M. F. & Weinberger, D. R. (1990). Anatomical abnormalities in the brains of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. New England Journal of Medicine 322, 789–794.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Surtees, P. G. & Sashidharan, S. P. (1986). Psychiatric morbidity in two matched community samples: a comparison of rates and risks in Edinburgh and St Louis. Journal of Affective Disorders 10, 101–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, D. C. (1969). Differential rates of cerebral maturation between the sexes and between hemispheres. Lancet ii, 140–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thatcher, R. W., Walker, R. A. & Giudice, S. (1987). Human cerebral hemispheres develop at different rates and ages. Science 236, 1110–1113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsuang, M. T., Dempsey, G. M. & Rauscher, F. (1976). A study of ‘atypical schizophrenia’: comparison with schizophrenia and affective disorder by sex, age of admission, precipitant, outcome, and family history. Archives of General Psychiatry 33, 1157–1160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, S. W., Toone, B. K. & Brett-Jones, J. R. (1986). Computerised tomographic scan changes in early schizophrenia: preliminary findings. Psychological Medicine 16, 219–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vita, A., Sacchetti, E., Calzeroni, A. & Cazzullo, C. L. (1988). Cortical atrophy in schizophrenia: prevalence and associated features. Schizophrenia Research 1, 329–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waddington, J. L., O'Callaghan, E. & Larkin, C. (1990). Physical anomalies and neurodevelopmental abnormality in schizophrenia: new clinical correlates. Schizophrenia Research 3, 90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinberger, D. R. (1987). Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 660–669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilcox, J. A. & Nasrallah, H. A. (1987). Perinatal distress and prognosis of psychotic illness. Neuropsychobiology 17, 173–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wing, L. (1981). Asperger's Syndrome. Psychological Medicine 11, 115–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolff, S. & Chick, J. (1980). Schizoid personality in childhood: a controlled follow-up study. Psychological Medicine 10, 85–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yu, V. Y. H., Loke, H. L., Bajuk, B., Szymonowicz, W., Orgill, A. A. & Astbury, J. (1986). Prognosis for infants born at 23 to 28 weeks' gestation. British Medical Journal 293, 1200–1203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeitlin, H. (1986). The Natural History of Psychiatric Disorder in Children. Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Zigler, E. & Levine, J. (1973). Pre-morbid adjustment and paranoid-nonparanoid status in schizophrenia: a further investigation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 82, 189–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zigler, E., Levine, J. & Zigler, B. (1977). Pre-morbid social competence and paranoid-nonparanoid status in female schizophrenic patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 164, 333–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar