Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T00:41:13.748Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The many faces of human ageing: toward a psychological culture of old age1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 July 2009

Paul B. Baltes*
Affiliation:
Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Education, Berlin, Germany
*
1Address for correspondence: Dr Paul B. Baltes, Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Education, Lentzeallee 94, D-1000 Berlin-W33, Germany.

Synopsis

In an effort to distil major findings about the nature of human ageing, seven propositions are presented as a guiding frame of reference. This propositional framework is then used to specify some conditions for a positive culture of old age and to advance one possible model of good psychological ageing. This model focuses on the dynamic interplay between three processes: selection, optimization, and compensation. The model is universal in its basic features, but at the same time emphasizes individual variations in phenotypic manifestation.

Type
Original Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1991

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

1

This paper was presented as the keynote lecture (Festvortrag) of the Annual Meeting of the Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Sciences, in June 1989 at Wiesbaden, FRG (Max Planck Society Yearbook, 1989).

References

Assmann, A. (Ed.) (1991). Weisheit. Wilhelm Fink Verlag: Münich.Google Scholar
Baltes, M. M. (1987). Erfolgreiches Altern als Ausdruck von Verhaltens kompetenz und Umweltqualität (Successful ageing as a function of behavioural competence and environmental quality). In Der Mensch im Zusammenspiel von Anlage und Umwelt (ed. Niemitz, C.), pp. 353377. Suhrkamp: Frankfurt.Google Scholar
Baltes, M. M. & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.). (1986). The Psychology of Control and Aging. Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B. (1973). Strategies for psychological intervention in old age. Gerontologist 13, 46.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: on the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology 23, 611626.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B. & Baltes, M. M. (1980). Plasticity and variability in psychological aging: methodological and theoretical issues. In Determining the Effects of Aging on the Central Nervous System (ed. Gurski, G. E.), pp. 4166. Schering: Berlin.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B. & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful aging: the model of selective optimization with compensation. In Successful Aging: Perspectives from the Behavioral Sciences (ed. Baltes, P. B. and Baltes, M. M.), pp. 134. Cambridge University Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B. & Kliegl, R. (1991). Further testing of limits of cognitive plasticity in old age: negative age differences in mnemonic skill are robust. Developmental Psychology (in the press).Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B. & Lindenberger, U. (1988). On the range of cognitive plasticity in old age as a function of experience: 15 years of intervention research. Behavior Therapy 19, 283300.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B. & Smith, J. (1990). The psychology of wisdom and its ontogenesis. In Wisdom: Its Nature, Origins, and Development (ed. Sternberg, R. J.), pp. 87120. Cambridge University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Dittmann-Kohli, F. & Dixon, R. A. (1984). New perspectives on the development of intelligence in adulthood: toward a dual-process conception and a model of selective optimization with compensation. In Life-span Development and Behavior, vol. 6 (ed. Baltes, P. B. and Brim, O. G. Jr.), pp. 3376. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Sowarka, D. & Kliegl, R. (1989). Cognitive training research on fluid intelligence in old age: what can older adults achieve by themselves? Psychology and Aging 4, 217221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bateson, P. (1987). Biological approaches to the study of development. International Journal of Behavioral Development 10, 122.Google Scholar
Birren, J. E. (1959). Principles of research on aging. In Handbook of Aging and the Individual: Psychological and Biological Aspects (ed. Birren, J. E.), pp. 342. University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL.Google Scholar
Boesch, E. E. (1976). Psychopathologie des Alltags (Psychopathology of everyday life). Huber: Bern.Google Scholar
Bower, G. H. (1970). Analysis of a mnemonic device. American Scientist 58, 496510.Google Scholar
Brandtstädter, J. (1984). Personal and social control over development: some implications of an action perspective in life-span development. In Life-span Development and Behavior, vol. 6 (ed. Baltes, P. B. and Brim, O. G. Jr.), pp. 133. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Brandtstädter, J. (1990). Development as a personal and social construction. In Everyday Understanding: Social and Scientific Implications (ed. Gergen, K. & Semin, G.), pp. 83107. Sage: London.Google Scholar
Brandtstädter, J. & Baltes-Götz, B. (1990). Personal control over development and quality of life perspectives in adulthood. In Successful Aging: Perspectives from the Behavioral Sciences (ed. Baltes, P. B. and Baltes, M. M.), pp. 197224. Cambridge University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Brandtstädter, J. & Renner, G. (1990). Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment: explication and age-related analysis of assimilative and accommodative models of coping. Psychology and Aging 5, 5867.Google Scholar
Brim, O. G. Jr. (1988). Losing and winning: the nature of ambition in everyday life. Psychology Today 9, 4852.Google Scholar
Bromley, D. B. (1988). Approaching the limits. Social Behaviour 3, 7184.Google Scholar
Brown, A. L. (1982). Learning and development: the problem of compatibility, access, and induction. Human Development 25, 89115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1971). Abilities: Their Structure, Growth, and Action. Houghton Mifflin: Boston.Google Scholar
Charness, N. (Ed.). (1985). Aging and Human Performance. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.Google Scholar
Chi, M. T. H., Glaser, R. & Rees, E. (1982). Expertise in problem-solving. In Advances in the psychology of human intelligence, vol. 7 (ed. Sternberg, R. J.), pp. 776. Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ.Google Scholar
Cicero, M. T. (44 BC). Cato Major, de senectute (Original work translated by Logan, J.; published by B. Franklin 1744 as, Cato major or His discourse of old age. Philadelphia, PA: Benjamin Franklin). Reprinted by Arno Press, 1979.Google Scholar
Clayton, V. & Birren, J. E., (1980). The development of wisdom across the life span: a reexamination of an ancient topic. In Lifespan Development and Behavior, vol. 3. (ed. Baltes, P. B. and Brim, O. G. Jr.), pp. 103135. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Commons, M. L., Sinnott, J. D., Richards, F. A. & Armon, C. (Eds.). (1989). Adult Development: Comparisons and Applications of Developmental Models. Praeger: New York.Google Scholar
Coper, H., Jänicke, B. & Schulze, G. (1986). Biopsychological research on adaptivity across the life span of animals. In Life-span Development and Behavior, vol. 7 (ed. Baltes, P. B., Featherman, D. L. and Lerner, R. M.), pp. 207232. Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ.Google Scholar
Costa, P. T. Jr., & Andres, R. (1986). Patterns of age changes. In Clinical Geriatrics (ed. Rossman, I.), pp. 2330. Lippincott: New York.Google Scholar
Cotman, C. W. (Ed.). (1985). Synoptic Plasticity. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
Cowdry, E. V. (Ed.). (1939). Problems of ageing. Biological and Medical Aspects. Williams and Wilkins: Baltimore.Google Scholar
Cross, S. & Markus, H. (1991). Possible selves across the life span. Human Development (in the press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denney, N. W. (1984). A model of cognitive development across the life span. Developmental Review 4, 171191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dittmann-Kohli, F. & Baltes, P. B. (1990). Toward a neofunctionalist conception of adult intellectual development: wisdom as a prototypical case of intellectual growth. In Beyond Formal Operations: Alternative Endpoints to Human Development (ed. Alexander, C. and Langer, E.), pp. 5478. Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Dixon, R. A. & Baltes, P. B. (1986). Toward life-span research on the functions and pragmatics of intelligence. In Practical Intelligence: Nature and Origins of Competence in the Everyday World (ed. Sternberg, R. J. and Wagner, R. K.), pp. 203235. Cambridge University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Edelman, G. M. (1987). Neural Darwinism: The Theory of Neuronal Group Selection. Basic Books: New York.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. (1990). Peak performance and age: an examination of peak performance in sports. In Successful Aging: Perspectives from the Behavioral Sciences (ed. Baltes, P. B. and Baltes, M. M.), pp. 164196. Cambridge University Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. & Simon, H. A. (1984). Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data. MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Evans, D. A., Funkenstein, H., Albert, M. S., Scherr, P. A., Cook, N. R., Chown, M. J., Hebert, L. E., Hennekens, C. H. & Taylor, J. O. (1989). Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease in a community population of older persons – higher than previously reported. Journal of the American Medical Association 262, 25512556.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Featherman, D. L. & Lerner, R. M. (1985). Ontogenesis and sociogenesis: problematics for theory and research about development and socialization across the life span. American Sociological Review 50, 659676.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Featherman, D. L., Smith, J. & Peterson, J. G. (1990). Successful aging in a ‘post-retired’ society. In Successful aging: Perspectives from the Behavioral Sciences (ed. Baltes, P. B. and Baltes, M. M.), pp. 5093. Cambridge University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117140.Google Scholar
Filipp, S.-H. & Klauer, T. (1986). Conceptions of self over the life span: reflections on the dialectics of change. In The Psychology of Control and Aging (ed. Baltes, M. M. and Baltes, P. B.), pp. 167205. Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ.Google Scholar
Fries, J. F. (1983). The compression of morbidity. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 61, 397419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fries, J. F. (1989). Aging Well. Addison-Wesley: Reading, MA.Google Scholar
Fries, J. F. (1990). Medical perspectives upon successful aging. In Successful Aging: Perspectives from the Behavioral Sciences (ed. Baltes, P. B. and Baltes, M. M.), pp. 3549. Cambridge University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Gehlen, A. (1956). Urmensch und Spätkultur. Athenäum: Bonn.Google Scholar
Glaser, R. (1984). Education and thinking. American Psychologist 39, 93104.Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G. (1980). The totalitarian ego: fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist 35, 603618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guillemard, A. (1989). Old age policies in developed western countries and their implications for the status of the elderly. In An Aging world (ed. Eekelaar, J. M. and Pearl, D.), pp. 363367. Clarendon Press: Oxford.Google Scholar
Häfner, H. (1986). Psychologische Gesundheit im Alter. G. Fischer: Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Hayslip, B. Jr. (1989). Alternative mechanisms for improvements in fluid ability performance among older adults. Psychology and Aging 4, 122124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heckhausen, H. (1991). Motivation and Action. Springer: Heidelberg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heckhausen, J. & Baltes, P. B. (1991). Perceived controllability of expected psychological change across adulthood and old age. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 46, 165173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heckhausen, J., Dixon, R. A. & Baltes, P. B. (1989). Gains and losses in development throughout adulthood as perceived by different adult age groups. Developmental Psychology 25, 109121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heimpel, H. (1981). Schlußwort. In Hermann Heimpel zum 80. Geburtstag (ed. Max-Planck-Institut für Geschichte), pp. 4147. Hubert & Co: Göttingen.Google Scholar
Holliday, S. G. & Chandler, M. J. (1986). Wisdom: explorations in adult competence. In Contributions to Human Development (ed. Meacham, J. A.), vol. 17, pp. 196. Karger: Basel.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1970). Organization of data on life-span development of human abilities. In Life-span Developmental Psychology: Research and Theory (ed. Goulet, L. R. and Baltes, P. B.), pp. 423466. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1982). The theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence in relation to concepts of cognitive psychology and aging in adulthood. In Aging and Cognitive Processes (ed. Craik, F. I. M. and Trehub, S. E.), pp. 847870. Plenum Press: New York.Google Scholar
Hoyer, S. (1986). Conical aspects of the dementias. In Neurology (ed. Poeck, K., Freund, H.-J. and Gänshirt, H.), pp. 2125. Springer: Heidelberg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoyer, W. J. (1985). Aging and the development of expert cognition. In New Directions in Cognitive Science (ed. Schlechter, T. M. and Toglia, M. P.), pp. 6987. Ablex: Norwood, NJ.Google Scholar
Kastenbaum, R. (1968). Perspectives on the development and modification of behavior in the aged: a developmental-field perspective. Gerontologist 8, 280283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kekes, J. (1983). Wisdom. American Philosophical Quarterly 20, 277286.Google Scholar
Kleemeier, R. W. (1962). Intellectual change in the senium. Proceedings of the Social Statistics Section of the American Statistical Association, 290295.Google Scholar
Kliegl, R. & Baltes, P. B. (1987 a). Das Janusgesicht des Alters: Über Wachstum und Abbau in Intelligenz and Gedächtnis. In Medicenale XVII (ed. Graul, E. H., Pütter, S. and Loew, D.), pp. 122. Medice: Iserlohn.Google Scholar
Kliegl, R. & Baltes, P. B. (1987 b). Theory-guided analysis of development an aging mechanisms though testing-the-limits and research on expertise. In Cognitive Functioning and Social Structure over the Life Course (ed. Schooler, C. and Schaie, K. W.), pp. 95119. Ablex: Norwood, NJ.Google Scholar
Kliegl, R., Smith, J. & Baltes, P. B. (1989). Testing-the-limits and the study of adult age differences in cognitive plasticity of a mnemonic skill. Developmental Psychology 25, 247256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klix, F. (Ed.). (1984). Gedächtnis, Wissen, Wissensnutzung (Memory, Knowledge, and Utilization of Knowledge). Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften: Berlin.Google Scholar
Labouvie-Vief, G. (1977). Adult cognitive development: in search of alternative interpretations. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 23, 227263.Google Scholar
Labouvie-Vief, G. (1981). Proactive and reactive aspects of constructivism: growth and aging in life-span perspective. In Individuals as Producers of their Development (ed. Lerner, R. M. and Busch-Rossnagel, N. A.), pp. 197230. Academic Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labouvie-Vief, G. (1982). Dynamic development and mature autonomy: a theoretical prologue. Human Development 25, 161191.Google Scholar
Labouvie-Vief, G. & Hakim-Larson, J. (1989). Developmental shifts in adult thought. In Midlife Myths (ed. Hunter, S. and Sundel, M.), pp. 6996. Sage: Newbury Park, CA.Google Scholar
Lachman, M. E. (1986). Personal control in later life: stability, change, and cognitive correlates. In The Psychology of Control and Aging (ed. Baltes, M. M. and Baltes, P. B.), pp. 207236. Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ.Google Scholar
Lehr, U. & Thomae, H. (Eds.). (1987). Formen seelischen Alterns (Patterns of Psychological Ageing). Enke: Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Lindenberger, U. (1990). The effects of professional expertise and cognitive aging on skilled memory performance. Ph. D thesis, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, FRG.Google Scholar
Looft, W. R. (1971). The psychology of more. American Psychologist 26, 561565.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddox, G. L. (1987). Aging differently. Gerontologist 27, 557564.Google Scholar
Mandl, H. & Spada, H. (Eds.). (1988). Wissenspsychologie (The Psychology of Knowledge). Psychologie Verlags Union: München-Weinheim.Google Scholar
Manton, K. G. (1989). Life-style risk factors. Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Sciences 503, 7288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markus, H. & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist 41, 954969.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nesselroade, J. R. (1989). Adult personality development: issues in addressing constancy and change. In Studying Persons and Lives (ed. Rabin, A. I., Zucker, R. A., Emmons, R. A. and Frank, S.), pp. 4185. Springer: New York.Google Scholar
Neugarten, B. L. (1974). Age groups in American society and the rise of the young-old. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, (Sept.) 187198.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. (1980). History of the Idea of Progress. Basic Books: New York.Google Scholar
Oelmüller, W. (Hrsg.). (1989). Philosophie und Weisheit (Philosophy and Wisdom). Schöningh: Paderborn.Google Scholar
Perlmutter, M. (1988). Cognitive potential throughout life. In Emergent Theories of Aging (ed. Birren, J. E. and Bengtson, V. L.), pp. 247268. Springer: New York.Google Scholar
Perlmutter, M. (Ed.). (1990). Late Life Potential. The Gerontological Society of America: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Riegel, K. F. & Riegel, R. M. (1972). Development, drop, and death. Developmental Psychology 6, 306319.Google Scholar
Riley, M. W. & Riley, J. W. Jr., (Eds.). (1989). The quality of aging: strategies for interventions. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences (vol. 503). Sage: Newbury Park, CA.Google Scholar
Rowe, J. W. & Kahn, R. L. (1987). Human aging: usual and successful. Science, 237, 143149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryff, C. D. (1982). Successful aging: a developmental approach. Gerontologist 22, 209214.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (1984). Effects of age and skill in typing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 113, 345371.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (1985). A Theory of Cognitive Aging. North Holland: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (1986). Perceptual, cognitive, and motoric aspects of transcription typing. Psychological Bulletin 99, 303319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaie, K. W. (1979). The primary mental abilities in adulthood: an exploration in the development of psychometric intelligence. In Life-span Development and Behavior (ed. Baltes, P. B. and Brim, O. G. Jr.), vol. 3, pp. 67115. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Schaie, K. W. (1988). Variability in cognitive function in the elderly: implications for societal participation. In Phenotypic Variation in Populations (ed. Woodhead, A. D., Bender, M. A. and Leonard, R. C.), pp. 191211. Plenum Press: New York.Google Scholar
Schaie, K. W. & Willis, S. L. (1986). Can adult intellectual decline be reversed? Developmental Psychology 22, 223232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schopenhauer, A. (1851/1974). Aphorismen zur Lebensweisheit (Aphorisms on the Wisdom of Life). Alfred Kröner Verlag: Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Siegler, I. C. & Costa, P. T. Jr., (1985). Health behavior relationships. In Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, 2nd edn (ed. Birren, J. E. and Schaie, K. W.), pp. 144168. Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York.Google Scholar
Smith, J. & Baltes, P. B. (1990). A study of wisdom-related knowledge: age/cohort differences in responses to life planning problems. Developmental Psychology 26, 494505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sørensen, A. B., Weinert, F. & Sherrod, L. (1986). Human Development and the Life Course. Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., Cornelius, S. W. & Baltes, P. B. (1989). The aging of intelligence: potential and limits. Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Sciences 503, 4359.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (1990). Wisdom: Its Nature, Origins, and Development. Cambridge University Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suls, J. M. & Miller, R. L. (Eds.). (1977). Social Comparison Processes. Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives. Hemisphere: Washington.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E. & Lobel, M. (1989). Social comparison activity under threat: downward evaluation and upward contacts. Psychological Bulletin 96, 569575.Google Scholar
Thomae, H. (Ed.). (1959). Entwicklungspsychologie (Developmental Psychology). Hogrefe: Göttingen.Google Scholar
Waddington, C. H. (1975). The Evolution of an Evolutionist. Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Willis, S. L. (1987). Cognitive training and everyday competence. In Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, vol. 7 (ed. Schaie, K. W.), pp. 159188. Springer: New York.Google Scholar
Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin 90, 245271.Google Scholar
Wood, J. V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin 106, 231248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yesavage, J. A. & Rose, T. L. (1984). Semantic elaboration and the method of loci: a new trip for older learners. Experimental Aging Research 10, 155159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed