Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T19:56:57.155Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The impact of cognitive reserve, cognition and clinical symptoms on psychosocial functioning in first-episode psychoses

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 September 2020

Silvia Amoretti Open the ORCID record for Silvia Amoretti [Opens in a new window] ,
Adriane R Rosa ,
Gisela Mezquida ,
Bibiana Cabrera ,
María Ribeiro ,
Mariola Molina ,
Miquel Bioque ,
Antonio Lobo ,
Ana González-Pinto  and
David Fraguas
...Show all authors
Silvia Amoretti
Affiliation:
Barcelona Clinic Schizophrenia Unit, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Spain Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain August Pi I Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
Adriane R Rosa
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil Postgraduate Program: Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil Department of Pharmacology and Postgraduate Program: Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
Gisela Mezquida
Affiliation:
Barcelona Clinic Schizophrenia Unit, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Spain Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain August Pi I Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
Bibiana Cabrera
Affiliation:
Barcelona Clinic Schizophrenia Unit, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Spain Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain August Pi I Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
María Ribeiro
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Complejo Hospitalario de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain IdiSNA, Navarra Institute for Health Research, Pamplona, Spain
Mariola Molina
Affiliation:
Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón. School of Psychology, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
Miquel Bioque
Affiliation:
Barcelona Clinic Schizophrenia Unit, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Spain Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain August Pi I Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
Antonio Lobo
Affiliation:
Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain Department of Medicine and Psychiatry. Zaragoza University. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Zaragoza, Spain
Ana González-Pinto
Affiliation:
Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain Department of Psychiatry, Hospital Universitario de Álava (Sede Santiago), University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Bioaraba Research Institute, Spain
David Fraguas
Affiliation:
Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Institute of Psychiatry and Mental Health, IiSGM, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
Iluminada Corripio
Affiliation:
Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain Psychiatry Department, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica-Sant Pau (IIB-SANT PAU), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
Eduard Vieta
Affiliation:
Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain August Pi I Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain Bipolar and Depressive Disorders Unit, Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
Elena de la Serna
Affiliation:
Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain August Pi I Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology Department, 2017SGR881, Institute of Neurosciences, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Department of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Laura Morro
Affiliation:
Hospital del Mar, Department of Psychiatry, Barcelona, Spain
Marina Garriga
Affiliation:
Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain August Pi I Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain Bipolar and Depressive Disorders Unit, Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
Carla Torrent
Affiliation:
Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain August Pi I Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain Bipolar and Depressive Disorders Unit, Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
Manuel J Cuesta
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Complejo Hospitalario de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain IdiSNA, Navarra Institute for Health Research, Pamplona, Spain
Miguel Bernardo*
Affiliation:
Barcelona Clinic Schizophrenia Unit, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Spain Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain August Pi I Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
*
Author for correspondence: Miguel Bernardo, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Functional impairment is a defining feature of psychotic disorders. A range of factors has been shown to influence functioning, including negative symptoms, cognitive performance and cognitive reserve (CR). However, it is not clear how these variables may affect functioning in first-episode psychosis (FEP) patients. This 2-year follow-up study aimed to explore the possible mediating effects of CR on the relationship between cognitive performance or specific clinical symptoms and functional outcome.

Methods

A prospective study of non-affective FEP patients was performed (211 at baseline and 139 at follow-up). CR was entered in a path analysis model as potential mediators between cognitive domains or clinical symptoms and functioning.

Results

At baseline, the relationship between clinical variables or cognitive performance and functioning was not mediated by CR. At follow-up, the effect of attention (p = 0.003) and negative symptoms (p = 0.012) assessed at baseline on functioning was partially mediated by CR (p = 0.032 and 0.016), whereas the relationship between verbal memory (p = 0.057) and functioning was mediated by CR (p = 0.014). Verbal memory and positive and total subscales of PANSS assessed at follow-up were partially mediated by CR and the effect of working memory on functioning was totally mediated by CR.

Conclusions

Our results showed the influence of CR in mediating the relationship between cognitive domains or clinical symptoms and functioning in FEP. In particular, CR partially mediated the relationship between some cognitive domains or clinical symptoms and functioning at follow-up. Therefore, CR could improve our understanding of the long-term functioning of patients with a non-affective FEP.

Keywords

Cognitioncognitive reservefirst-episodefunctioningneuropsychology
Type
Original Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 52 , Issue 3 , February 2022 , pp. 526 - 537
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Silvia Amoretti and Adriane R Rosa both are joint first authors.

‡

The notes appear after the main text.

†

G Anmella1,14, S Madero1,14, P Rubio2,12, J Merchán-Naranjo2,12, A Alonso-Solís2,13, M Rabella2,13, I González-Ortega2,11, I Zorrilla2,11, MF Barcones10,17, C De-la-Cámara2,10, J Sanjuan2,18,19, MD Moltó2,18, A Mané2,16, D Bergé2,16, N Verdolini2,3,14, J Sanchez-Moreno2,3,14, J Castro-Fornieles2,3,15, O Puig2,3,15, F Contreras2,20, C Saiz-Masvidal20, L García-Álvarez2,21, P García-Portilla2,21, M Gutiérrez2,22, A Zabala2,23, M Dompablo2, 24,25, R Rodriguez-Jimenez2,25,26, J Usall27, A Butjosa2,27,28, S Sarró2,29, R Landín-Romero30, A Ibáñez2,31, L Moreno-Izco7,8, V Balanzá-Martinez2,32

PEPs Group additional affiliations:

1Barcelona Clinic Schizophrenia Unit, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Neuroscience Institute, University of Barcelona, Spain; 2Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain; 3August Pi I Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS); 4Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil; 5Postgraduate Program: Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil; 6Department of Pharmacology and Postgraduate Program: Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil; 7Department of Psychiatry, Complejo Hospitalario de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; 8IdiSNA, Navarra Institute for Health Research, Pamplona, Spain; 9Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón. School of Psychology, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain; 10Department of Medicine and Psychiatry. Zaragoza University. Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Zaragoza, Spain; 11Department of Psychiatry, Hospital Universitario de Álava (Sede Santiago), University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Bioaraba Research Institute, Spain; 12Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Institute of Psychiatry and Mental Health, IiSGM, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain; 13Psychiatry Department, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica-Sant Pau (IIB-SANT PAU), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain; 14Bipolar and Depressive Disorders Unit, Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain; 15Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology Department, 2017SGR881, Institute of Neurosciences, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, Department of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; 16Hospital del Mar, Department of Psychiatry, Barcelona, Spain; 17Department of Family Medicine, Hospital Universitario Miguel Servet, Zaragoza Spain; 18INCLIVA, Universidad de Valencia, Hospital Clínico Universitario de Valencia, Spain; 19Hospital Clínico Universitario de Valencia, Spain; 20Psychiatry Department, Bellvitge University Hospital-IDIBELL, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain; 21Universidad de Oviedo, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA); 22Araba University Hospital, Bioaraba Research Institute, Vitoria, Spain; 23University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Department of Neurosciences. BioCruces Health Research Institute, Spain; 24Cardenal Cisneros, Centro de Enseñanza Superior adscrito a la Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain; 25Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain; 26CogPsy Group, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Madrid, Spain; 27Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain; 28Fundació Sant Joan de Déu, Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain; 29FIDMAG Germanes Hospitalàries Research Foundation, Barcelona, Spain; 30Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, Sydney, NSW, Australia; 31Department of Psychiatry, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, IRYCIS, Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid, Spain; 32Teaching Unit of Psychiatry, Department of Medicine, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

References

Abdin, E., Chong, S. A., Vaingankar, J. A., Peh, C. X., Poon, L. Y., Rao, S., … Subramaniam, M. (2017). Trajectories of positive, negative and general psychopathology symptoms in first episode psychosis and their relationship with functioning over a 2-year follow-up period. PLoS One, 12, e0187141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amoretti, S., Bernardo, M., Bonnin, C. M., Bioque, M., Cabrera, B., Mezquida, G., … Torrent, C. (2016). The impact of cognitive reserve in the outcome of first-episode psychoses: 2-year follow-up study. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 26, 1638–1648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amoretti, S., Cabrera, B., Torrent, C., Bonnín, C. M., Mezquida, G., Garriga, M., … Bernardo, M. (2019). Cognitive reserve assessment scale in health (CRASH): Its validity and reliability. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 28, 8.Google Scholar
Amoretti, S., Cabrera, B., Torrent, C., Mezquida, G., Lobo, A., & González-Pinto, A., … PEPsGroup. (2018). Cognitive reserve as an outcome predictor: First-episode affective versus non-affective psychosis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 138, 411–455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anaya, C., Torrent, C., Caballero, F.F., Vieta, E., Bonnín, C.M., & Ayuso-Mateos, J.L., & CIBERSAM Functional Remediation Group. (2016). Cognitive reserve in bipolar disorder: Relation to cognition, psychosocial functioning and quality of life. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 133, 386–398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, T. R. E., & Pant, A. (2005). Long-term course and outcome of schizophrenia. Psychiatry, 4, 29–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, J., Salmond, C., Jones, P., & Sahakian, B. J. (2006). Cognitive reserve in neuropsychiatry. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1053–1064.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benedet, M.J. (1998). Test de Aprendizaje Verbal España-Complutense (TAVEC). Madrid: TEA Ediciones.Google Scholar
Bernardo, M., Bioque, M., Parellada, M., Saiz, J., Cuesta, M.J., Llerena, A., … PEPs Group. (2013). Assessing clinical and functional outcomes in a gene-environment interaction study in first episode of psychosis (PEPs). Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental, 6, 4–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buonocore, M., Bechi, M., Uberti, P., Spangaro, M., Cocchi, F., Guglielmino, C., … Cavallaro, R. (2018). Cognitive reserve profiles in chronic schizophrenia: Effects on theory of mind performance and improvement after training. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24, 563–571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon-Spoor, H., Potkin, S., & Wyatt, R. (1982). Measurement of premorbid adjustment in chronic schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 8, 470–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, W. C., Tang, J. Y., Hui, C. L., Lam, M. M., Chan, S. K., Wong, G. H., … Chen, E. Y. (2012). Prediction of remission and recovery in young people presenting with first-episode psychosis in Hong Kong: A 3-year follow-up study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 46, 100–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conners, C. K. (2004). Continuous performance test II. North Tonawanda, NY: Mutli-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Cuesta, M.J., Sánchez-Torres, A.M., Cabrera, B., Bioque, M., Merchán-Naranjo, J., Corripio, I., … PEPs Group (2015). Premorbid adjustment and clinical correlates of cognitive impairment in first-episode psychosis. The PEPsCog study. Schizophrenia Research, 164, 65–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De la Serna, E., Andrés-Perpiñá, S., Puig, O., Baeza, I., Bombin, I., Bartrés-Faz, D., … Castro-Fornieles, J. (2013). Cognitive reserve as a predictor of two year neuropsychological performance in early onset first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 143, 125–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faerden, A., Friis, S., Agartz, I., Barrett, E. A., Nesvåg, R., Finset, A., & Melle, I. (2009). Apathy and functioning in first-episode psychosis. Psychiatric Services, 60, 1495–1503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fett, A. K., Viechtbauer, W., Domínguez, M. D., Penn, D. L., van Os, J., & Krabbendam, L. (2011). The relationship between neurocognition and social cognition with functional outcomes in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 573–588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
First, M., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R., Williams, J., & Benjamin, L. (1997). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV axis II personality disorders (SCID-II). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
First, M., Spitzer, R., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. (1997). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV axis I disorders-clinician (SCID-I). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Forcada, I., Mur, M., Mora, E., Vieta, E., Bartrés-Faz, D., & Portella, M. (2015). The influence of cognitive reserve on psychosocial and neuropsychological functioning in bipolar disorder. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 25, 214–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fusar-Poli, P., Cappucciati, M., Rutigliano, G., Heslin, M., Stahl, D., Brittenden, Z., … Carpenter, W. T. (2016). Diagnostic stability of ICD/DSM first episode psychosis diagnoses: Meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 42, 1395–1406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fusar-Poli, P., McGorry, P. D., & Kane, J. M. (2017). Improving outcomes of first-episode psychosis: An overview. World Psychiatry, 16, 251–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardner, D., Murphy, A., O'Donnell, H., Centorrino, F., & Baldessarini, R. J. (2010). International consensus study of antipsychotic dosing. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 686–693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garrido, G., Barrios, M., Penadés, R., Enríquez, M., Garolera, M., Aragay, N., … Vendrell, J. M. (2013). Computer-assisted cognitive remediation therapy: Cognition, self-esteem and quality of life in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 150, 563–569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González-Ortega, I., González-Pinto, A., Alberich, S., Echeburúa, E., Bernardo, M., Cabrera, B., … PEPs Group. (2019). Influence of social cognition as a mediator between cognitive reserve and psychosocial functioning in patients with first episode psychosis. Psychological Medicine, 22, 1–9.Google Scholar
Grande, I., Sanchez-Moreno, J., Sole, B., Jimenez, E., Torrent, C., Bonnín, C. M., … Martínez-Arán, A. (2017). High cognitive reserve in bipolar disorders as a moderator of neurocognitive impairment. Journal of Affective Disorders, 208, 621–627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, M. H., Holton, K. M., Öngür, D., Montrose, D., & Keshavan, M. S. (2019). Longitudinal trajectory of early functional recovery in patients with first episode psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 209, 234–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heaton, R. (1993). Wisconsin card sorting test manual. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Herrero, P., Contador, I., Stern, Y., Fernández-Calvo, B., Sánchez, A., & Ramos, F. (2019). Influence of cognitive reserve in schizophrenia: A systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2, 149–159.Google Scholar
Hollingshead, A., & Redlich, F. (1958). Social class and mental illness: A community study. 1958. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 1756–1757.Google Scholar
Jordan, G., Veru, F., Lepage, M., Joober, R., Malla, A., & Iyer, S. N. (2018). Pathways to functional outcomes following a first episode of psychosis: The roles of premorbid adjustment, verbal memory and symptom remission. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 52, 793–803.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kay, S., Fiszbein, A., & Opler, L. (1987). The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13, 261–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiang, M., Christensen, B. K., Remington, G., & Kapur, S. (2003). Apathy in schizophrenia: Clinical correlates and association with functional outcome. Schizophrenia Research, 63, 79–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kokkevi, A., & Hartgers, C. (1995). European adaptation of a multidimensional assessment instrument for drug and alcohol dependence. European Addiction Research, 1, 208–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leeson, V., Sharma, P., Harrison, M., Ron, M. A., Barnes, T. R. E., & Joyce, E. M. (2011). IQ Trajectory, cognitive reserve, and clinical outcome following a first episode of psychosis: A 3-year longitudinal study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37, 768–777.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Loring, D. W., Hannay, H. J., & Fischer, J. S. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th Edn). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lincoln, T. M., Lüllmann, M., & Rief, W. (2007). Correlates and long-term consequences of poor insight in patients with schizophrenia. A systematic review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33, 1324–1342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEvoy, J. P., Johnson, J., Perkins, D., Lieberman, J. A., Hamer, R. M., Keefe, R. S., … Sharma, T. (2006). Insight in first-episode psychosis. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1385–1393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mezquida, G., Cabrera, B., Bioque, M., Amoretti, S., Lobo, A., González-Pinto, A., … PEPs Group (2017). The course of negative symptoms in first- episode schizophrenia and its predictors: A prospective two-year follow-up study. Schizophrenia Research, 189, 84–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milev, P., Ho, B. C., Arndt, S., & Andreasen, N. C. (2005). Predictive values of neurocognition and negative symptoms on functional outcome in schizophrenia: A longitudinal first-episode study with 7-year follow-up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 495–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montgomery, S., & Asberg, M. (1979). A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. British Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 382–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nucci, M., Mapelli, D., & Mondini, S. (2012). The cognitive reserve questionnaire (CRIq): A new instrument for measuring the cognitive reserve. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 24, 218–126.Google ScholarPubMed
Olivier, M. R., Killian, S., Chiliza, B., Asmal, L., Schoeman, R., Oosthuizen, P. P., … Emsley, R. (2015). Cognitive performance during the first year of treatment in first-episode schizophrenia: A case-control study. Psychological Medicine, 45, 2873–2883.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Penadés, R., Catalán, R., Salamero, M., Boget, T., Puig, O., Guarch, J., & Gastó, C. (2006). Cognitive remediation therapy for outpatients with chronic schizophrenia: A controlled and randomized study. Schizophrenia Research, 87, 323–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pettigrew, C., & Soldan, A. (2019). Defining cognitive reserve and implications for cognitive aging. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 19, 1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, D. G., Woerner, M. G., McMeniman, M., Mendelowitz, A., & Bilder, R. M. (2004). Symptomatic and functional recovery from a first episode of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 473–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodríguez-Blanco, L., Lubrini, G., Vidal-Mariño, C., & Ríos-Lago, M. (2017). Efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation of attention, executive functions, and working memory in psychotic disorders: A systematic review. Actas Españolas de Psiquiatria, 45, 167–178.Google ScholarPubMed
Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. M., Ayesa-Arriola, R., Pérez-Iglesias, R., Periañez, J. A., Martinez-Garcia, O., Gomez-Ruiz, E., … Crespo-Facorro, B. (2013). Course of cognitive deficits in first episode of non-affective psychosis: A 3-year follow-up study. Schizophrenia Research, 150, 121–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosa, A. R., Sánchez-Moreno, J., Martínez-Aran, A., Salamero, M., Torrent, C., Reinares, M., … Vieta, E. (2007). Validity and reliability of the functioning assessment short test (FAST) in bipolar disorder. Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 7, 5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sánchez-Torres, A.M., Moreno-Izco, L., Lorente-Omeñaca, R., Cabrera, B., Lobo, A., & González-Pinto, A., … PEPs group (2018). Individual trajectories of cognitive performance in first episode psychosis: A 2-year follow-up study. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 268, 699–711.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Segarra, R., Ojeda, N., Peña, J., García, J., Rodriguez-Morales, A., Ruiz, I., … Gutiérrez, M. (2012). Longitudinal changes of insight in first episode psychosis and its relation to clinical symptoms, treatment adherence and global functioning: One-year follow-up from the Eiffel study. European Psychiatry, 27, 43–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 448–460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2013). Cognitive reserve: Implications for assessment and intervention. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 65, 49–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M.S., & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary, 3rd Edn. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Suslow, T., Schonauer, K., & Arolt, V. (2001). Attention training in the cognitive rehabilitation of schizophrenic patients: A review of efficacy studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 103, 15–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsapakis, E. M., Dimopoulou, T., & Tarazi, F. I. (2015). Clinical management of negative symptoms of schizophrenia: An update. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 153, 135–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Winkel, R., Myin-Germeys, I., De Hert, M., Delespaul, P., Peuskens, J., & van Os, J. (2007). The association between cognition and functional outcome in first-episode patients with schizophrenia: Mystery resolved? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 116, 119–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ventura, J., Hellemann, G. S., Thames, A. D., Koellner, V., & Nuechterlein, K. H. (2009). Symptoms as mediators of the relationship between neurocognition and functional outcome in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 113, 189–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vesterager, L., Christensen, TØ, Olsen, B. B., Krarup, G., Melau, M., Forchhammer, H. B., & Nordentoft, M. (2012). Cognitive and clinical predictors of functional capacity in patients with first episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 141, 251–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vieta, E. (2015). Staging and early intervention in bipolar disorder. The Lancet. Psychiatry, 2, 483–485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler adult intelligence scale - III (WAIS-III). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Association.Google Scholar
White, C., Stirling, J., Hopkins, R., Morris, J., Montague, L., Tantam, D., & Lewis, S. (2009). Predictors of 10-year outcome of first episode psychosis. Psychological Medicine, 39, 1447–1456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willis, K. J., & Hakim, A. M. (2013). Stroke prevention and cognitive reserve: Emerging approaches to modifying risk and delaying onset of dementia. Frontiers in Neurology, 24, 13.Google Scholar
Young, R., Biggs, J., Ziegler, V. E., & Meyer, D. A. (1978). A rating scale for mania: Reliability, validity and sensitivity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 429–435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed