Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T01:18:04.211Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Gender, victimization, and psychiatric outcomes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 April 2008

A. Gershon ,
K. Minor  and
C. Hayward
A. Gershon
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
K. Minor
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
C. Hayward*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: C. Hayward, M.D., M.P.H., Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Room 1316, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305-5722, USA. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Although gender differences in rates of internalizing disorders, particularly depression, are well documented, the causes of these differences are not well understood. One influential hypothesis [Cutler & Nolen-Hoeksema, Sex Roles (1991), 24, 425–438] proposes that higher rates of depression in females compared to males may be partially attributable to gender differences in the effects of childhood sexual abuse. The present study has evaluated this possibility by reviewing evidence for gender moderating the effects of childhood victimization on psychiatric outcomes.

Method

Literature search using PsycINFO and Medline, applying the following inclusion criteria: publication from 1996 to 2006, community-based sampling, adequate male-to-female sample ratio, use of clearly defined psychiatric outcomes, and a statistical test of gender differences in the effects of childhood victimization on psychiatric outcomes.

Results

Thirty studies met inclusion criteria. Overall, the results were mixed. Nearly half of all studies find no gender differences. In studies that do observe gender differences, victimization tends to be associated with higher psychiatric risk in females in studies with adult samples, whereas in samples of youth, victimization tends to be associated with higher psychiatric risk in males. With respect to outcome, when gender differences were observed, outcomes were distributed across both internalizing and externalizing categories for both genders.

Conclusions

The gender differences in prevalence rates of internalizing disorders, such as depression, do not appear to be attributable to differential effects of childhood victimization.

Keywords

Abusechildhood and adolescencegender differencesliterature reviewpsychiatric disordersvictimization
Type
Review Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 38 , Issue 10 , October 2008 , pp. 1377 - 1391
Copyright
Copyright © 2008 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackard, DM, Neumark-Sztainer, D (2002). Date violence and date rape among adolescents: associations with disordered eating behaviors and psychological health. Child Abuse and Neglect 26, 455–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ackard, DM, Neumark-Sztainer, D, Hannan, PJ, French, S, Story, M (2001). Binge and purge behavior among adolescents: associations with sexual and physical abuse in a nationally representative sample: the Commonwealth Fund survey. Child Abuse and Neglect 25, 771–785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, JC, Williams, S, McGee, R, Silva, PA (1987). DSM-III disorders in preadolescent children: prevalence in a large sample from the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 69–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergen, HA, Martin, G, Richardson, AS, Allison, S, Roeger, L (2003). Sexual abuse and suicidal behavior: a model constructed from a large community sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42, 1301–1309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergen, HA, Martin, G, Richardson, AS, Allison, S, Roeger, L (2004). Sexual abuse, antisocial behavior and substance use: gender differences in young community adolescents. New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 38, 34–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bond, L, Carlin, JB, Thomas, L, Rubin, K, Patton, G (2001). Does bullying cause emotional problems? A prospective study of young teenagers. British Medical Journal 323, 480–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boney-McCoy, S, Finkelhor, D (1996). Is youth victimization related to trauma symptoms and depression after controlling for prior symptoms and family relationships? A longitudinal, prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64, 1406–1416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breslau, N, Chilcoat, HD, Kessler, RC, Peterson, EL, Lucia, VC (1999). Vulnerability to assaultive violence: further specification of the sex difference in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine 29, 813–821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breslau, N, Davis, GC, Andreski, P, Peterson, EL (1997). Sex differences in posttraumatic stress disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 54, 1044–1048.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briggs-Gowan, MJ, Owens, P, Schwab-Stone, M, Leventhal, J, Leaf, P, Horowitz, SM (2003). Persistence of psychiatric disorders in pediatric settings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42, 1360–1369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chartier, MJ, Walker, JR, Stein, MB (2001). Social phobia and potential childhood risk factors in a community sample. Psychological Medicine 31, 307–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, P, Cohen, J, Kasen, S, Velez, CN, Hartmark, C, Johnson, J, Rojas, M, Brook, J, Streuning, EL (1993). An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence. I. Age- and gender-specific prevalence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 34, 851–867.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craig, WM (1998). The relationship among bullying, victimization, depression, anxiety, and aggression in elementary school children. Personality and Individual Differences 24, 123–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cutler, S, Nolen-Hoeksema, S (1991). Accounting for sex differences in depression through female victimization: childhood sexual abuse. Sex Roles 24, 425–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, PJ (1999). Gender differences in autobiographical memory for childhood emotional experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76, 498–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dinwiddie, S, Heath, AC, Dunne, MP, Bucholz, KK, Madden, PA, Slutske, WS, Bierut, LJ, Statham, DB, Martin, NG (2000). Early sexual abuse and lifetime psychopathology: a co-twin-control study. Psychological Medicine 30, 41–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, RD (2000). Childhood maltreatment and college drop-out rates: implications for child abuse researchers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 15, 987–995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fergusson, DM, Swain-Campbell, NR, Horwood, LJ (2002). Does sexual violence contribute to elevated rates of anxiety and depression in females? Psychological Medicine 32, 991–996.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garnefski, N, Arends, E (1998). Sexual abuse and adolescent maladjustment: differences between male and female victims. Journal of Adolescence 21, 99–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garnefski, N, Diekstra, RF (1997). Child sexual abuse and emotional and behavioral problems in adolescence: gender differences. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36, 323–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodwin, RD, Fergusson, DM, Horwood, LJ (2005). Childhood abuse and familial violence and the risk for panic attacks and panic disorder in young adulthood. Psychological Medicine 35, 881–890.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gorey, KM, Leslie, DR (1997). The prevalence of child sexual abuse: integrative review adjustment of potential response and measurement bias. Child Abuse and Neglect 21, 391–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hankin, BL, Abramson, LY, Moffitt, TE, Silva, PA, McGee, R, Angell, KE (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107, 128–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodges, EVE, Perry, DG (1999). Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76, 677–685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howard, DE, Wang, MQ (2005). Psychosocial correlates of U.S. adolescents who report a history of forced sexual intercourse. Journal of Adolescent Health 36, 372–379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jumper, SA (1995). A meta-analysis of the relationship of child sexual abuse to adult psychological adjustment. Child Abuse and Neglect 19, 715–728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendall-Tackett, KA, Williams, LM, Finkelhor, D (1993). Impact of sexual abuse on children: a review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. Psychological Bulletin 113, 164–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, RC, Davis, CG, Kendler, KS (1997). Childhood adversity and adult psychiatric disorder in the US National Comorbidity Survey. Psychological Medicine 27, 1101–1019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, RC, McGonagle, KA, Swartz, M, Blazer, DG, Nelson, CB (1993). Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey. I: Lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. Journal of Affective Disorders 29, 85–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, RC, Sonnega, A, Bromet, E, Hughes, M, Nelson, CB (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 52, 1048–1060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khatri, P, Kupersmidt, JB, Patterson, C (2000). Aggression and peer victimization as predictors of self-reported behavioral and emotional adjustment. Aggressive Behavior 26, 345–358.3.0.CO;2-L>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilpatrick, DG, Acierno, R, Saunders, B, Resnick, HS, Best, CL, Schnurr, PP (2000). Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: data from a national sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 68, 19–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knopik, VS, Heath, AC, Madden, PA, Bucholz, KK, Slutske, WS, Nelson, EC, Statham, D, Whitfield, JB, Martin, NG (2004). Genetic effects on alcohol dependence risk: re-evaluating the importance of psychiatric and other heritable risk factors. Psychological Medicine 34, 1519–1530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, PM, Hops, H, Roberts, RE, Seeley, JR, Andrews, JA (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high schools students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 102, 133–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacMillan, HL, Fleming, JE, Streiner, DL, Lin, E, Boyle, MH, Jamieson, E, Duku, EK, Walsh, CA, Wong, MY, Beardslee, WR (2001). Childhood abuse and lifetime psychopathology in a community sample. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 1878–1883.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacMillan, HL, Fleming, JE, Trocme, N, Boyle, MH, Wong, M, Racine, YA, Beardslee, WR, Offord, DR (1997). Prevalence of child physical and sexual abuse in the community: results from the Ontario Health Supplement. Journal of the American Medical Association 278, 131–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, G, Bergen, HA, Richardson, AS, Roeger, L, Allison, S (2004). Sexual abuse and suicidality: gender differences in a large community sample of adolescents. Child Abuse and Neglect 28, 491–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molnar, BE, Berkman, LF, Buka, SL (2001 a). Psychopathology, childhood sexual abuse and other childhood adversities: relative link to subsequent suicidal behaviour in the US. Psychological Medicine 31, 965–977.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molnar, BE, Buka, SL, Kessler, RC (2001 b). Child sexual abuse and subsequent psychopathology: results from the National Comorbidity Survey. American Journal of Public Health 91, 753–760.Google ScholarPubMed
Nelson, EC, Heath, AC, Lynskey, MT, Bucholz, KK, Madden, PA, Statham, DJ, Martin, NG (2006). Childhood sexual abuse and risks for licit and illicit drug-related outcomes: a twin study. Psychological Medicine 36, 1473–1483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, EC, Heath, AC, Madden, PA, Cooper, ML, Dinwiddie, SH, Bucholz, KK, Glowinski, A, McLaughlin, T, Dunne, MP, Statham, DJ, Martin, NG (2002). Association between self-reported childhood sexual abuse and adverse psychosocial outcomes: results from a twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 139–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neumann, DA, Houskamp, BM, Pollock, VE, Briere, J (1996). The long-term sequelae of childhood sexual abuse in women: a meta-analytic review. Child Maltreatment 1, 6–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neumark-Sztainer, D, Story, M, Hannan, PJ, Beuhring, T, Resnick, MD (2000). Disordered eating among adolescents: associations with sexual/physical abuse and other familial/psychosocial factors. International Journal of Eating Disorders 28, 249–258.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nolen-Hoeksema, S, Girgus, JS (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin 115, 424–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norris, FH (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 60, 409–418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paolucci, EO, Genuis, ML, Violato, C (2001). A meta-analysis of the published research on the effects of child sexual abuse. Journal of Psychology 135, 17–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pimlott-Kubiak, S, Cortina, LM (2003). Gender, victimization, and outcomes: reconceptualizing risk. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71, 528–539.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prinstein, MJ, Boergers, J, Vernberg, EM (2001). Overt and relational aggression in adolescents: social-psychological adjustment of aggressors and victims. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 30, 479–491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnam, FW (2003). Ten-year research update review: child sexual abuse. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42, 269–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reinherz, HZ, Paradis, AD, Giaconia, RM, Stashwick, CK, Fitzmaurice, G (2003). Childhood and adolescent predictors of major depression in the transition to adulthood. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 2141–2147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rind, B, Tromovitch, P (1997). A meta-analytic review of findings from national samples on psychological correlates of child sexual abuse. Journal of Sex Research 34, 237–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rind, B, Tromovitch, P, Bauserman, R (1998). A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of child sexual abuse using college samples. Psychological Bulletin 124, 22–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, D, McFayden-Ketchum, SA, Dodge, KA, Pettit, GS, Bates, JE (1998). Peer group victimization as a predictor of children's behavior problems at home and in school. Development and Psychopathology 10, 87–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, TN, Farrell, AD, Kliewer, W (2006). Peer victimization in early adolescence: association between physical and relational victimization and drug use, aggression, and delinquent behaviors among urban middle school students. Development and Psychopathology 18, 119–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tolin, DF, Foa, EB (2006). Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: a quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Bulletin 132, 959–992.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiss, EL, Longhurst, JG, Mazure, CM (1999). Childhood sexual abuse as a risk factor for depression in women: psychosocial and neurobiological correlates. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 816–828.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, MM, Bland, RC, Canino, GJ, Faravelli, C, Greenwald, S, Hwu, HG, Joyce, PR, Karam, EG, Lee, CK, Lellouch, J, Lépine, JP, Newman, SC, Rubio-Stipec, M, Wells, JE, Wickramaratne, PJ, Wittchen, H, Yeh, EK (1996). Cross-national epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder. Journal of the American Medical Association 276, 293–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widom, LM, Morris, S (1997). Accuracy of adult recollections of childhood victimization: Part 2. Childhood sexual abuse. Psychological Assessment 9, 34–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, LM (1994). Recall of childhood trauma: a prospective study of women's memories of child sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 1167–1176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed