Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T23:59:56.191Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Evaluation of the ‘Jumping to conclusions’ bias in different subgroups of the at-risk mental state: from cognitive basic symptoms to UHR criteria

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 April 2016

F. Rausch ,
S. Eisenacher ,
H. Elkin ,
S. Englisch ,
S. Kayser ,
N. Striepens ,
M. Lautenschlager ,
A. Heinz ,
Y. Gudlowski  and
B. Janssen
...Show all authors
F. Rausch*
Affiliation:
Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Germany
S. Eisenacher
Affiliation:
Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Germany
H. Elkin
Affiliation:
Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Germany
S. Englisch
Affiliation:
Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Germany
S. Kayser
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bonn, Germany
N. Striepens
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bonn, Germany
M. Lautenschlager
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité University Medicine Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
A. Heinz
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité University Medicine Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
Y. Gudlowski
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité University Medicine Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
B. Janssen
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Germany
W. Gaebel
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Germany
T. M. Michel
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Aachen, Germany
F. Schneider
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Aachen, Germany
M. Lambert
Affiliation:
Department for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
D. Naber
Affiliation:
Department for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
G. Juckel
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Preventive Medicine, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
S. Krueger-Oezguerdal
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Preventive Medicine, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
T. Wobrock
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Georg-August-University Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
A. Hasan
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
M. Riedel
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
S. Moritz
Affiliation:
Department for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
H. Müller
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Germany
J. Klosterkötter
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Germany
A. Bechdolf
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Cologne, Germany
M. Zink
Affiliation:
Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Germany
M. Wagner
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bonn, Germany
*
*Address for correspondence: Dr F. Rausch, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Square J5, D-68159 Mannheim, Germany. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Patients with psychosis display the so-called ‘Jumping to Conclusions’ bias (JTC) – a tendency for hasty decision-making in probabilistic reasoning tasks. So far, only a few studies have evaluated the JTC bias in ‘at-risk mental state’ (ARMS) patients, specifically in ARMS samples fulfilling ‘ultra-high risk’ (UHR) criteria, thus not allowing for comparisons between different ARMS subgroups.

Method

In the framework of the PREVENT (secondary prevention of schizophrenia) study, a JTC task was applied to 188 patients either fulfilling UHR criteria or presenting with cognitive basic symptoms (BS). Similar data were available for 30 healthy control participants matched for age, gender, education and premorbid verbal intelligence. ARMS patients were identified by the Structured Interview for Prodromal Symptoms (SIPS) and the Schizophrenia Proneness Instrument – Adult Version (SPI-A).

Results

The mean number of draws to decision (DTD) significantly differed between ARM -subgroups: UHR patients made significantly less draws to make a decision than ARMS patients with only cognitive BS. Furthermore, UHR patients tended to fulfil behavioural criteria for JTC more often than BS patients. In a secondary analysis, ARMS patients were much hastier in their decision-making than controls. In patients, DTD was moderately associated with positive and negative symptoms as well as disorganization and excitement.

Conclusions

Our data indicate an enhanced JTC bias in the UHR group compared to ARMS patients with only cognitive BS. This underscores the importance of reasoning deficits within cognitive theories of the developing psychosis. Interactions with the liability to psychotic transitions and therapeutic interventions should be unravelled in longitudinal studies.

Keywords

At-risk mental statejumping-to-conclusionmetacognitionprobabilistic reasoningprodromeschizophrenia
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 46 , Issue 10 , July 2016 , pp. 2071 - 2081
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Andreou, C, Treszl, A, Roesch-Ely, D, Kother, U, Veckenstedt, R, Moritz, S (2014). Investigation of the role of the jumping-to-conclusions bias for short-term functional outcome in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 218, 341–347.Google Scholar
Bach, DR, Dolan, RJ (2012). Knowing how much you don't know: a neural organization of uncertainty estimates. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 13, 572–586.Google Scholar
Bechdolf, A, Müller, H, Stutzer, H, Wagner, M, Maier, W, Lautenschlager, M, Heinz, A, Janssen, B, Gaebel, W, Michel, TM, Schneider, F, Lambert, M, Naber, D, Brüne, M, Krüger-Özgürdal, S, Wobrock, T, Riedel, M, Klosterkötter, J (2011). Rationale and baseline characteristics of PREVENT: a second-generation intervention trial in subjects at-risk (prodromal) of developing first-episode psychosis evaluating cognitive behavior therapy, aripiprazole, and placebo for the prevention of psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin 37 (Suppl. 2), S111–S121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentall, RP, Rowse, G, Shryane, N, Kinderman, P, Howard, R, Blackwood, N, Moore, R, Corcoran, R (2009). The cognitive and affective structure of paranoid delusions: a transdiagnostic investigation of patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 236–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackwood, N, Fytche, D, Simmons, A, Bentall, R, Murray, R, Howard, R (2004). The cerebellum and decision making under uncertainty. Cognitive Brain Research 20, 46–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bodatsch, M, Ruhrmann, S, Wagner, M, Müller, R, Schultze-Lutter, F, Frommann, I, Brinkmeyer, J, Gaebel, W, Maier, W, Klosterkötter, J, Brockhaus-Dumke, A (2011). Prediction of psychosis by mismatch negativity. Biological Psychiatry 69, 959–966.Google Scholar
Broome, MR, Johns, LCD, Valli, IMD, Wooley, JBM, Tabraham, PD, Brett, C, Valmaggia, L, Peteres, E, Garety, PA, McGuire, PKP (2007). Delusion formation and reasoning biases in those at clinical high risk for psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 191, s38–s42.Google Scholar
Colbert, SM, Peters, ER (2002). Need for closure and jumping-to-conclusions in delusion-prone individuals. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 190, 27–31.Google Scholar
Colbert, SM, Peters, E, Garety, P (2010). Jumping to conclusions and perceptions in early psychosis: relationship with delusional beliefs. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 15, 422–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dudley, RE, John, CH, Young, AW, Over, DE (1997). Normal and abnormal reasoning in people with delusions. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 36, 243–258.Google Scholar
Dura-Bernal, S, Wennekers, T, Denham, SL (2012). Top-down feedback in an HMAX-Like cortical model of object perception based on hierarchical bayesian networks and belief propagation. PLoS ONE 7, e48216.Google Scholar
Ermakova, AO, Ramachandra, P, Corlett, PR, Fletcher, PC, Murray, GK (2014). Effects of methamphetamine administration on information gathering during probabilistic reasoning in healthy humans. PLoS ONE. 9, e102683.Google Scholar
Esslinger, C, Braun, U, Schirmbeck, F, Santos, A, Meyer-Lindenberg, A, Zink, M, Kirsch, P (2013). Activation of midbrain and ventral striatal regions implicates salience processing during a modified beads task. PLoS ONE 8, e58536.Google Scholar
Falcone, MA, Murray, RM, Wiffen, BD, O'Connor, JA, Russo, M, Kolliakou, A, Stilo, S, Taylor, H, Gardner-Sood, P, Paparelli, A, Jichi, F, Di, FM, David, AS, Freeman, D, Jolley, S (2014). Jumping to conclusions, neuropsychological functioning, and delusional beliefs in first episode psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin. Published online: 22 July 2014. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu104.Google Scholar
Fine, C, Gardner, M, Craigie, J, Gold, I (2007). Hopping, skipping or jumping to conclusions? Clarifying the role of the JTC bias in delusions. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 12, 46–77.Google Scholar
Flavell, JH, Green, FL, Flavell, ER (1993). Children's understanding of the stream of consciousness. Child Development 64, 387–398.Google Scholar
Fletcher, PC, Frith, CD (2009). Perceiving is believing: a bayesian approach to explaining the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 10, 48–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, D, Garety, P, Kuipers, E, Colbert, S, Jolley, S, Fowler, D, Dunn, G, Bebbington, P (2006). Delusions and decision-making style: use of the Need for Closure Scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44, 1147–1158.Google Scholar
Friston, K (2010). The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory? Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11, 127–138.Google Scholar
Frommann, I, Pukrop, R, Brinkmeyer, J, Bechdolf, A, Ruhrmann, S, Berning, J, Decker, P, Riedel, M, Möller, HJ, Wölwer, W, Gaebel, W, Klosterkötter, J, Maier, W, Wagner, M (2011). Neuropsychological profiles in different at-risk states of psychosis: executive control impairment in the early- and additional memory dysfunction in the late- prodromal state. Schizophrenia Bulletin 37, 861–873.Google Scholar
Furl, N, Averbeck, BB (2011). Parietal cortex and insula relate to evidence seeking relevant to reward-related decisions. Journal of Neuroscience 31, 17572–17582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fusar-Poli, P, Bonoldi, I, Yung, AR, Borgwardt, S, Kempton, MJ, Valmaggia, L, Barale, F, Caverzasi, E, McGuire, P (2012). Predicting psychosis: meta-analysis of transition outcomes in individuals at high clinical risk. Archives of General Psychiatry 69, 220–229.Google Scholar
Fusar-Poli, P, Borgwardt, S, Bechdolf, A, Addington, J, Riecher-Roessler, A, Schultze-Lutter, F, Keshavan, M, Wood, S, Ruhrmann, S, Seidman, LJ, Valmaggia, L, Cannon, T, Velthorst, E, de Haan, L, Cornblatt, B, Bonoldi, I, Birchwood, M, McGlashan, T, Carpenter, WT, McGorry, PD, Klosterkoetter, J, McGuire, P, Yung, A (2013). The psychosis high-risk state: a comprehensive state-of-the-art review. JAMA Psychiatry 70, 107–120.Google Scholar
Fusar-Poli, P, Meyer-Lindenberg, A (2012 a). Striatal presynaptic dopamine in schizophrenia, part I: meta-analysis of dopamine active transporter (DAT) density. Schizophrenia Bulletin 39, 22–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fusar-Poli, P, Meyer-Lindenberg, A (2012 b). Striatal presynaptic dopamine in schizophrenia, part II: meta-analysis of [18F/11C]-DOPA PET studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin 39, 33–42.Google Scholar
Garety, PA, Freeman, D (1999). Cognitive approaches to delusions: a critical review of theories and evidence. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 38, 113–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garety, PA, Freeman, D (2013). The past and future of delusions research: from the inexplicable to the treatable. British Journal of Psychiatry 203, 327–333.Google Scholar
Garety, P, Waller, H, Emsley, R, Jolley, S, Kuipers, E, Bebbington, P, Dunn, G, Fowler, D, Hardy, A, Freeman, D (2014). Cognitive mechanisms of change in delusions: an experimental investigation targeting reasoning to effect change in paranoia. Schizophrenia Bulletin. Published online: 21 July 2014. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu103.Google ScholarPubMed
Garety, PA, Hemsley, DR, Wessely, S (1991). Reasoning in deluded schizophrenic and paranoid patients. Biases in performance on a probabilistic inference task. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases 179, 194–201.Google Scholar
Grinband, J, Hirsch, J, Ferrera, VP (2006). A neural representation of categorization uncertainty in the human brain. Neuron 49, 757–763.Google Scholar
Häfner, H, Bechdolf, A, Klosterkötter, J, Maurer, K (2012). Psychosen – Früherkennung und Frühintervention. In Der Praxisleitfaden. Schattauer: Stuttgart, pp. 67–87.Google Scholar
Heinz, A, Schlagenhauf, F (2010). Dopaminergic dysfunction in schizophrenia: salience attribution revisited. Schizophrenia Bulletin 36, 472–485.Google Scholar
Hemsley, DR (2005). The schizophrenic experience: taken out of context? Schizophrenia Bulletin 31, 43–53.Google Scholar
Hemsley, DR, Garety, PA (1986). The formation of maintenance of delusions: a Bayesian analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry 149, 51–56.Google Scholar
Howes, OD, Kambeitz, J, Kim, E, Stahl, D, Slifstein, M, bi-Dargham, A, Kapur, S (2012). The nature of dopamine dysfunction in schizophrenia and what this means for treatment: a meta-analysis of imaging studies. Archives of General Psychiatry 69, 776–786.Google Scholar
Huq, SF, Garety, PA, Hemsley, DR (1988). Probabilistic judgements in deluded and non-deluded subjects. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A 40, 801–812.Google Scholar
Jolley, S, Thompson, C, Hurley, J, Medin, E, Butler, L, Bebbington, P, Dunn, G, Freeman, D, Fowler, D, Kuipers, E, Garety, P (2014). Jumping to the wrong conclusions? An investigation of the mechanisms of reasoning errors in delusions. Psychiatry Research 219, 275–282.Google Scholar
Juckel, G, Friedel, E, Koslowski, M, Witthaus, H, Özgürdal, S, Gudlowski, Y, Knutson, B, Wrase, J, Brüne, M, Heinz, A, Schlagenhauf, F (2012). Ventral striatal activation during reward processing in subjects with ultra-high risk for schizophrenia. Neuropsychobiology 66, 50–56.Google Scholar
Kapur, S (2003). Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: a framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 13–23.Google Scholar
Koch, K, Wagner, G, Schachtzabel, C, Schultz, CC, Guellmar, D, Reichenbach, JR, Sauer, H, Schloesser, RGM (2011). Neural activation and radial diffusivity in schizophrenia: combined fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging study. British Journal of Psychiatry 198, 223–229.Google Scholar
Koutsouleris, N, Borgwardt, S, Meisenzahl, EM, Bottlender, R, Möller, HJ, Riecher-Rössler, A (2012 a). Disease prediction in the at-risk mental state for psychosis using neuroanatomical biomarkers: results from the FePsy study. Schizophrenia Bulletin 38, 1234–1246.Google Scholar
Koutsouleris, N, Davatzikos, C, Bottlender, R, Patschurek-Kliche, K, Scheuerecker, J, Decker, P, Gaser, C, Möller, HJ, Meisenzahl, EM (2012 b). Early recognition and disease prediction in the at-risk mental states for psychosis using neurocognitive pattern classification. Schizophrenia Bulletin 38, 1200–1215.Google Scholar
Lee, TS, Mumford, D (2003). Hierarchical bayesian inference in the visual cortex. Journal of the Optical Society of America A 20, 1434–1448.Google Scholar
Lincoln, TM, Ziegler, M, Mehl, S, Rief, W (2010). The jumping to conclusions bias in delusions: specificity and changeability. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 119, 40–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lysaker, PH, Gumley, A, Luedtke, B, Buck, KD, Ringer, JM, Olesek, K, Kukla, M, Leonhardt, BL, Popolo, R, Dimaggio, G (2013). Social cognition and metacognition in schizophrenia: evidence of their independence and linkage with outcomes. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 127, 239–247.Google Scholar
Lysaker, PHP, Warman, DMP, Dimaggio, GM, Procacci, MM, LaRocco, VAM, Clark, LKM, Dike, CAM, Nicolo, GM (2008). Metacognition in schizophrenia: associations with multiple assessments of executive function. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 196, 384–389.Google Scholar
McGorry, PD, Nelson, B, Amminger, GP, Bechdolf, A, Francey, SM, Berger, G, Riecher-Rössler, A, Klosterkötter, J, Ruhrmann, S, Schultze-Lutter, F, Nordentoft, M, Hickie, I, McGuire, P, Berk, M, Chen, EY, Keshavan, MS, Yung, AR (2009). Intervention in individuals at ultra high risk for psychosis: a review and future directions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 70, 1206–1212.Google Scholar
Miller, TJ, McGlashan, TH, Rosen, JL, Cadenhead, K, Ventura, J, McFarlane, W, Perkins, DO, Pearlson, GD, Woods, SW (2003). Prodromal assessment with the structured interview for prodromal syndromes and the scale of prodromal symptoms: predictive validity, interrater reliability, and training to reliability. Schizophrenia Bulletin 29, 703–715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moritz, S, Woodward, TS (2005). Jumping to conclusions in delusional and non-delusional schizophrenic patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 44, 193–207.Google Scholar
Moritz, S, Andreou, C, Schneider, BC, Wittekind, CE, Menon, M, Balzan, RP, Woodward, TS (2014). Sowing the seeds of doubt: a narrative review on metacognitive training in schizophrenia. Clinical Psychology Review 34, 358–366.Google Scholar
Moritz, S, Veckenstedt, R, Bohn, F, Hottenrott, B, Scheu, F, Randjbar, S, Aghotor, J, Kother, U, Woodward, TS, Treszl, A, Andreou, C, Pfueller, U, Roesch-Ely, D (2013). Complementary group metacognitive training (MCT) reduces delusional ideation in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 151, 61–69.Google Scholar
Moritz, S, Woodward, TS, Hausmann, D (2006). Incautious reasoning as a pathogenetic factor for the development of psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 327–331.Google Scholar
Moritz, S, Woodward, TS, Jelinek, L, Klinge, R (2008). Memory and metamemory in schizophrenia: a liberal acceptance account of psychosis. Psychological Medicine 38, 825–832.Google Scholar
Moritz, S, Woodward, TS, Lambert, M (2007). Under what circumstances do patients with schizophrenia jump to conclusions? A liberal acceptance account. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 46, 127–137.Google Scholar
Morris, RW, Vercammen, A, Lenroot, R, Moore, L, Langton, JM, Short, B, Kulkarni, J, Curtis, J, O'Donnell, M, Weickert, CS, Weickert, TW (2012). Disambiguating ventral striatum fMRI-related bold signal during reward prediction in schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry 17, 280–289.Google Scholar
Murray, GK (2011). The emerging biology of delusions. Psychological Medicine 41, 7–13.Google Scholar
Rausch, F, Eifler, S, Esser, A, Esslinger, C, Schirmbeck, F, Meyer-Lindenberg, A, Zink, M (2013). The early recognition inventory ERIraos detects at risk mental states of psychosis with high sensitivity. Comprehensive Psychiatry. Published online: 4 June 2013. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.04.016.Google Scholar
Rausch, F, Mier, D, Eifler, S, Esslinger, C, Schilling, C, Schirmbeck, F, Englisch, S, Meyer-Lindenberg, A, Kirsch, P, Zink, M (2014). Reduced activation in ventral striatum and ventral tegmental area during probabilistic decision-making in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 156, 143–149.Google Scholar
Rausch, F, Mier, D, Eifler, S, Fenske, S, Schirmbeck, F, Englisch, S, Schilling, C, Meyer-Lindenberg, A, Kirsch, P, Zink, M (2015). Reduced activation in the ventral striatum during probabilistic decision-making in patients in an at-risk mental state. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 40, 140191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, K, Freeman, D, Dunn, G, Garety, P (2011). A randomized experimental investigation of reasoning training for people with delusions. Schizophrenia Bulletin 37, 324–333.Google Scholar
Ross, RM, McKay, R, Coltheart, M, Langdon, R (2015). Jumping to conclusions about the beads task? a meta-analysis of delusional ideation and data-gathering. Schizophrenia Bulletin. Published online: 22 January 2015. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu187.Google Scholar
Rubio, JL, Ruiz-Veguilla, M, Hernandez, L, Barrigon, ML, Salcedo, MD, Moreno, JM, Gomez, E, Moritz, S, Ferrin, M (2011). Jumping to conclusions in psychosis: a faulty appraisal. Schizophrenia Research 133, 199–204.Google Scholar
Ruhrmann, S, Schultze-Lutter, F, Salokangas, RK, Heinimaa, M, Linszen, D, Dingemans, P, Birchwood, M, Patterson, P, Juckel, G, Heinz, A, Morrison, A, Lewis, S, von Reventlow, HG, Klosterkötter, J (2010). Prediction of psychosis in adolescents and young adults at high risk: results from the prospective European prediction of psychosis study. Archives of General Psychiatry 67, 241–251.Google Scholar
Schultze-Lutter, F, Addington, J, Ruhrmann, S, Klosterkötter, J (2007). Schizophrenia Proneness Instrument – Adult Version. Giovanni Fioriti Editore: Rome, Italy.Google Scholar
So, SH, Freeman, D, Dunn, G, Kapur, S, Kuipers, E, Bebbington, P, Fowler, D, Garety, PA (2012). Jumping to conclusions, a lack of belief flexibility and delusional conviction in psychosis: a longitudinal investigation of the structure, frequency, and relatedness of reasoning biases. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 121, 129–139.Google Scholar
Speechley, WJ, Murray, CB, McKay, RM, Munz, MT, Ngan, ETC (2010 a). A failure of conflict to modulate dual-stream processing may underlie the formation and maintenance of delusions. European Psychiatry 25, 80–86.Google Scholar
Speechley, WJ, Whitman, JC, Woodward, TS (2010 b). The contribution of hypersalience to the ‘jumping to conclusions’ bias associated with delusions in schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience 35, 7–17.Google Scholar
Van Dael, F, Versmissen, D, Janssen, I, Myin-Germeys, I, van Os, J, Krabbendam, L (2006). Data gathering: biased in psychosis? Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 341–351.Google Scholar
Van der Gaag, M, Hoffmann, T, Remijsen, M, Hijman, R, de Haan, L, van Meijel, B, van Harten, PN, Valmaggia, L, De Hert, M, Cuijpers, A, Wiersma, D (2006). The five-factor model of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale II: a ten-fold cross-validation of a revised model. Schizophrenia Research 85, 280–287.Google Scholar
Weickert, TW, Goldberg, TE, Callicott, JH, Chen, Q, Apud, JA, Das, S, Zoltick, BJ, Egan, MF, Meeter, M, Myers, C, Gluck, MA, Weinberger, DR, Mattay, VS (2009). Neural correlates of probabilistic category learning in patients with schizophrenia. Journal of Neuroscience 29, 1244–1254.Google Scholar
White, LO, Mansell, W (2009). Failing to ponder? Delusion-prone individuals rush to conclusions. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy 16, 111–124.Google Scholar
Young, HF, Bentall, RP (1997). Probabilistic reasoning in deluded, depressed and normal subjects: effects of task difficulty and meaningful versus non-meaningful material. Psychological Medicine 27, 455–465.Google Scholar
Yung, A, Yuen, HP, McGorry, PD, Phillips, LJ, Kelly, D, Dell'Olio, M, Francey, SM, Cosgrave, EM, Killackey, E, Stanford, C, Godfrey, K, Buckby, J (2005). Mapping the onset of psychosis: the comprehensive assessment of at-risk mental states. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 39, 964–971.Google Scholar
Ziegler, M, Rief, W, Werner, SM, Mehl, S, Lincoln, TM (2008). Hasty decision-making in a variety of tasks: does it contribute to the development of delusions? Psychology & Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice 81, 237–245.Google Scholar