Hostname: page-component-5cf477f64f-rdph2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-07T15:51:11.482Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Descriptive psychopathology: conceptual and historical aspects

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 July 2009

G. E. Berrios
G. E. Berrios*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge
*
1Address for correspondence: Dr G. E. Berrios, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Level 4, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Synopsis

This paper offers a conceptual and historical analysis of descriptive psychopathology. The first section defines it as a cognitive system constituted by terms, assumptions and rules for its application. It traces the conceptual implications of this definition and relates them to clinical practice. The second section contains an up-to-date assessment of current historical work on descriptive psychopathology and offers a new hypothesis to account for its development during the nineteenth century. It is suggested that the work involved in the testing of the hypothesis should be carried out by psychiatrists with historical training and as a separate speciality. It is concluded that the historical calibration of psychiatric symptoms must be considered as an essential stage in the construction of a viable descriptive psychopathology.

Type
Research Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 14 , Issue 2 , May 1984 , pp. 303 - 313
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1984

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerknecht, E. H. (1967). Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794–1848. Johns Hopkins Press: Baltimore.Google Scholar
Albrecht, F. M. (1970). A reappraisal of faculty psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 6, 36–40.Google ScholarPubMed
Alexander, F. G. & Selesnick, S. T. (1966). The History of Psychiatry: An Evaluation of Psychiatric Thought and Practice from Pre-historic Times to the Present. Harper: New York.Google Scholar
Alexander, M. D. (1976). The administration of madness and attitudes towards the insane in nineteenth century Paris. Doctoral Dissertation. John Hopkins Press: Baltimore.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) (3rd edn). APA: Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Andreasen, N. C. (1982). Should the term ‘Thought Disorder’ be revised? Comprehensive Psychiatry 23, 291–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bachelard, G. (1938). La formation de l'esprit scientifique. Vrin: Paris.Google Scholar
Ball, B. & Ritti, A. (1882). Délire. In Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, Vol. 26 (ed. Dechambre, A.), pp. 315–408. Asselin: Paris.Google Scholar
Barrucard, D. (1967). Histoire de l'hypnose en France. Presses Universitaires de France: Paris.Google Scholar
Barthes, R. (1972). Sémiologie et médecine. In Les sciences de la folie (ed. Bastide, R.), pp. 37–46. Mouton: Paris.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bash, K. W. (1955). Lehrbuch der allegemeinen Psychopathologie. Grundbegriffe und Klinik. Georg Thieme: Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Bercherie, P. (1980). Les fondements de la clinique. Histoire et structure du savoir psychiatrique. La Bibliothèque d'Ornicar: Paris.Google Scholar
Bercherie, P. (1983). Genèse des concepts freudiens. Navarin: Paris.Google Scholar
Berrios, G. E. (1977). Henri Ey, Jackson, et les idées obsédantes. L'évolution psychiatrique 42, 687–699.Google Scholar
Berrios, G. E. (1981 a). Stupor: a conceptual history. Psychological Medicine 11, 677–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berrios, G. E. (1981 b). Delirium and confusion in the 19th century: a conceptual history. British Journal of Psychiatry 139, 439–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berrios, G. E. (1982). Tactile hallucinations: conceptual and historical aspects. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 45, 285–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berrios, G. E. (1983). Orientation failures in medicine and psychiatry. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 76, 249–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berrios, G. E. (1984 a). Obsessional disorders: a conceptual history. I. Terminological and taxonomic aspects. (In the press.)Google Scholar
Berrios, G. E. (1984 b). Psychological theory and descriptive psychopathology during the nineteenth century. (To be published.)Google Scholar
Blashfield, R. K. & Feighner, J. P. (1982). Invisible colleges and the Matthew effect. Schizophrenia Bulletin 8, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blasius, D. (1980). Der verwaltete Wahnsinn. Eine Sozialgeschichte des Irrenhauses. Fischer Taschenbuch: Frankfurt.Google Scholar
Bollote, G. (1973). Moreau de Tours 1804–1884. Confrontations psychiatriques 11, 9–26.Google Scholar
Boring, E. G. (1942). Sensation and Perception in the History of Experimental Psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts: New York.Google Scholar
Boring, E. G. (1953). A history of introspection. Psychological Bulletin 50, 169–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boring, E. G. (1961). The beginning and growth of measurement in psychology. Isis 52, 238–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boutroux, E. (1908). De l'influence de la philosophie écossaise sur la philosophie française. In Études d'histoire de la philosophie (ed. Boutroux, E.), pp. 413–433. Alcan: Paris.Google Scholar
Braceland, F. J. (1970). Foreword. In Psychiatry and its History. Methodological Problems in Research (ed. Mora, G. and Brand, J. L.), p. vii. Charles Thomas: Springfield. III.Google Scholar
Brieger, G. H. (1980). History of medicine. In A Guide to the Culture of Science, Technology and Medicine (ed. Durbin, P. T.), pp. 121–194. Free Press: New York.Google Scholar
Brooks, G. P. (1976). The faculty psychology of Thomas Reid. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 12, 65–77.3.0.CO;2-T>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broustra, J. (1975). Les schizophrènes, chapter 5. Jean-Pierre Delarge: Paris.Google Scholar
Burckard, E. (1931). Les conceptions psychiatriques de Wernicke. Travaux de la clinique psychiatrique de Strassbourg 9, 45–141.Google Scholar
Canguilhem, G. (1975). Le normal et le pathologique (3rd edn). Presses Universitaires de France: Paris.Google Scholar
Carpenter, W. B. (1879). Principles of Mental Physiology. C. Kegan Paul and Co.: London.Google Scholar
Castel, R. (1973). Le psychanalysme. L'ordre psychanalytique et le pouvoir. Françoise Maspèro: Paris.Google Scholar
Castel, R. (1977). L'ordre psychiatrique. L'âge d'or de l'aliénisme. Minuit: Paris.Google Scholar
Castel, R., Castel, F. & Lovell, A. (1979). La societé psychiatrique avancée. Grasset et Fasquelle: Paris.Google Scholar
Castilla del Pino, C. (1978). Introducción a la psiquiatria. 1: Problemas Génerales, Psico (pato) logia. Alianza Editorial: Madrid.Google Scholar
Clarke, B. (1975). Mental Disorders in Earlier Britain: Exploratory Studies. University of Wales Press: Cardiff.Google Scholar
Clarke, E. (ed.) (1971). Modern Methods in the History of Medicine. Athlone Press: London.Google Scholar
Clifford, P. & Frosh, S. (1982). Towards a non-essentialist psychology: a linguistic framework. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society 35, 267–270.Google Scholar
Condillac, E. B. (1947). Traité de systèmes. In Oeuvres philosophiques de Condillac, Vol. 1 (ed. Roy, G. Le), pp. 121–217. Presses Universitaires de France: Paris.Google Scholar
Conrad, K. (1958). Die beginnende Schizophrenie. Versuch einer Gestalanalyse des Wahns. Georg Thieme: Stuttgart.Google Scholar
D'Amiens, D. (1875). Folie. In Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques par une société de professeurs et de savants (ed. Franck, A. D.), pp. 548–552. Hachette: Paris.Google Scholar
Daumezon, G. (1957). Réflexions sur la sémiologie psychiatrique. L'évolution psychiatrique 22, 207–237.Google Scholar
Daumezon, G. (1980). Légitimité de l'intérêt pour l'histoire de la psychiatrie. L'information psychiatrique 65, 647–653.Google Scholar
Daumezon, G. & Lanteri-Laura, G. (1961). Signification d'une sémiologie. L'Encéphale 14, 478–511.Google Scholar
De Boer, T. (1978). The Development of Husserl's Thought. Nijhoff: The Hague.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Koning, A. J. J. & Jenner, F. A. (eds.) (1982). Phenomenology and Psychiatry. Academic Press: London.Google Scholar
Delacroix, M. H. (1924). Maine de Biran et l'école médico-psychologique. Bulletin de la Société française de philosophie 24, 51–63.Google Scholar
Deshaies, G. (1967). Psychopathologie générale. Presses Universitaires de France: Paris.Google Scholar
Dewhurst, K. (1982). Hughlings Jackson on Psychiatry. Sandford Publications: Oxford.Google Scholar
Dörner, K. (1969). Bürger und Irre. Zur Sozialgeschichte und Wissenschaftsoziologie der Psychiatrie. Europäische Verlags-anstalt: Frankfurt.Google Scholar
Dubois, F. (1845). Quelques considérations sur l'aliénation mentale au point de vue de la psychologie. Bulletin de l'Académie royale de médecine 10, 533–543.Google Scholar
Ellenberger, H. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious. The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychopathology. Allen Lane: London.Google Scholar
Falret, J. F. (1864). Des maladies mentales et des asiles d'aliénés. J. B. Baillière: Paris.Google Scholar
Fancher, R. E. (1977). Brentano's psychology from an empirical standpoint and Freud's early metapsychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 13, 207–227.3.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrell, B. A. (1978). The progress of psychology. British Journal of Psychology 69, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fedida, P. (1964). Le structuralisme en psychopathologie. L'évolution psychiatrique 29, 85–129.Google Scholar
Fleck, L. (1979). Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact. University of Chicago Press: Chicago.Google Scholar
Foucault, M. (1972 a). Naissance de la clinique (2nd edn). Presses Universitaires de France: Paris.Google Scholar
Foucault, M. (1972 b). Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique. Gallimard: Paris.Google Scholar
Franck, A. D. (1875 a). Système. In Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques par une société de professeurs et de savants (2nd edn) (ed. Franck, A. D.), pp. 1703–1704. Hachette: Paris.Google Scholar
Franck, A. D. (1875 b). Signes. In Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques par une société de professeurs et de savants (2nd edn) (ed. Franck, A. D.), pp. 1608–1616. Hachette: Paris.Google Scholar
Gauchet, M. & Swain, G. (1980). La pratique de l'esprit humain. Gallimard: Paris.Google Scholar
Georgin, B. (1980). Remarques sur le discours nosologique en psychiatrie. L'évolution psychiatrique 45, 5–17.Google Scholar
Griesinger, W. (1867). Mental Pathology and Therapeutics (transl. Robertson, C. L. and Rutherford, J.). New Sydenham Society: London.Google Scholar
Griesinger, W. (1875). Vortrag zur Eröffnung der psychiatrischen Klinik zu Berlin. In Gesammelte Abhandlungen, Vol. 1, pp. 127–129. Hirschwald: Berlin.Google Scholar
Hacking, I. (ed.) (1981). Scientific Revolutions. Oxford University Press: Oxford.Google Scholar
Hare, E. H. (1974). The changing content of psychiatric ilness. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 18, 283–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harré, R. (1970). The Principles of Scientific Thinking, p. 33. MacMillan: London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Havens, L. (1965). Emil Kraepelin. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 141, 16–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helmer, O. & Rescher, N. (1959). On the epistemology of the inexact sciences. Management Science 8, 25–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hesse, M. B. (1966). Models and Analogies in Science. University of Notre Dame Press: Paris.Google Scholar
Hilgard, E. R. (1980). The trilogy of mind: cognition, affection, and conation. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 16, 107–117.3.0.CO;2-Y>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoeldtke, R. (1967). The history of associationism and British medical psychology. Medical History 11, 46–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holton, G. (1973). Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Mass.Google Scholar
Janzarik, W. (ed.) (1979). Psychopathologie als Grundlagenwissenschaft. Enke: Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Jaspers, K. (1963). General Psychopathology (transl. Hamilton, M. and Hoenig, J.). Manchester University Press: Manchester.Google Scholar
Jaspers, K. (1968). The phenomenological approach in psychopathology. British Journal of Psychiatry 114, 1313–1323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S. & Tsuang, M. T. (1981). Nosology of paranoid schizophrenia and other paranoid psychoses. Schizophrenia Bulletin 7, 594–610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroll, J. (1979). Philosophical foundations of French and US nosology. American Journal of Psychiatry 136, 1135–1138.Google ScholarPubMed
Kuhn, T. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago University Press: Chicago.Google Scholar
Laín Entralgo, P. (1978). Historia de la medicina. Salvat: Barcelona.Google Scholar
Lanteri-Laura, G. (1968). Psychologie pathologique. In Encyclopédie médico-chirurgicale. Psychiatrie, Vol. 1, 37032, C10. Editions Techniques: Paris.Google Scholar
Lanteri-Laura, G. (1982). La connaissance clinique: histoire et structure en médecine et en psychiatrie. L'évolution psychiatrique 47, 423–469.Google Scholar
Lanteri-Laura, G. (1983). La sémiologie psychiatrique: son évolution et son état en 1982. L'évolution psychiatrique 48, 327–363.Google Scholar
Laudan, L. (1977). Progress and its Problems. Towards a Theory of Scientific Growth. University of California Press: Berkeley.Google Scholar
Le Roy, G. (1937). La psychologie de Condillac. Boivin et Cie: Paris.Google Scholar
Leibbrand, W. & Wettley, A. (1961). Der Wahnsinn. Geschichte der abendländischen Psychopathologie. Karl Alber: Freiburg.Google Scholar
Leonhard, K. (1957). Aufteilung der endogenen Psychosen. Akademie: Berlin.Google Scholar
Linas, A. (1882). Monomanie. In Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales (5th Vol., 2nd Series) (ed. Dechambre, A.), pp. 146–195. Asselin: Paris.Google Scholar
Lopez Piñero, J. M. (1963). Orígenes históricos del concepto de neurosis. Instituto de Historia de la Medicina: Valencia.Google Scholar
Lopez Piñero, J. M. (1983). Historical Origins of the Concept of Neurosis (transl. Berrios, D.). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez Piñero, J. M. & Morales Meseguer, J. M. (1970). Neurosis y psicoterapia. Un estudio histórico. Espasa-Calpe: Madrid.Google Scholar
Mackenzie, T. B., Rosenberg, S. D. & Bergen, B. L. (1978). The manipulative patient: an interaction approach. Psychiatry 41, 264–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Biran, Maine (1841). Nouvelles considérations sur les rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme. In Oeuvres philosophiques de Maine de Biran, Vol. 4 (ed. Cousin, V.), pp. 1–146. Librairie de Ladrange: Paris.Google Scholar
Marchais, P. (1977). La méthode systèmale en psychiatrie. Annales médico-psychologiques 135, 677–695.Google Scholar
Marchais, P. (1981). Les processus psychopathologiques de l'adulte. Privat: Paris.Google Scholar
Marchais, P. (1983). Les mouvances psychopathologiques: essai de psychiatrie dynamique. Érès: Paris.Google Scholar
Marx, O. M. (1970). What is the history of psychiatry? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 40, 593–605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marx, O. M. (1977). History of psychology: a review of the last decade. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 13, 41–77.3.0.CO;2-8>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mazlish, B. (1967). Comte, Auguste. In The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vol. 2 (ed. Edwards, P.), pp. 173–177. Macmillan: New York.Google Scholar
McGuire, R. (1973). Classification and the problem of diagnosis. In Handbook of Abnormal Psychology (ed. Eysenck, H. J.), pp. 3–33. Pitman Medical: London.Google Scholar
McHugh, P. R. & Slavney, P. R. (1982). Methods of reasoning in psychopathology: conflict and resolution. Comprehensive Psychiatry 23, 197–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLeod, R. (1977). Changing perspectives in the history of science. In Science, Technology and Society: A Cross Disciplinarian Perspective (ed. Spiegel-Rosing, I. and Price, D. D. S.), pp. 149–196. Sage Publications: London.Google Scholar
Merleau-Ponty, M. (1945). Phénoménologie de la perception. Gallimard: Paris.Google Scholar
Miller, E. & Berrios, G. E. (1984). Medical model and psychiatry. (Submitted for publication.)Google Scholar
Mora, G. & Brand, J. L. (eds.) (1970). Psychiatry and its History. Methodological Problems in Research. Charles Thomas: Springfield, 111.Google Scholar
Munro, A. (1982). Paranoia revisited. British Journal of Psychiatry 141, 344–349.Google ScholarPubMed
Neve, M. (1983). Up market in Manhattan. Times Literary Supplement No. 4170, p. 208.Google Scholar
Pandit, G. L. (1983). The Structure and Growth of Scientific Knowledge. Reidel: Dordrecht.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parain-Vial, J. (1966). La nature du fait dans les sciences humaines. Presses Universitaires de France: Paris.Google Scholar
Pichot, P. (1982). The diagnosis and classification of mental disorders in French-speaking countries: background, current views and comparison with other nomenclatures. Psychological Medicine 12, 475–492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pigeaud, J. M. (1980). Le rôle des passions dans la pensée médicale de Pinel à Moreau de Tours. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 2, 123–140.Google Scholar
Pistoia, L. del (1971). Le problème de la temporalité dans la psychiatrie française classique. L'évolution psychiatrique 36, 445–474.Google Scholar
Postel, J. (1981). Genèse de la psychiatrie. Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel. Le Sycomore: Paris.Google Scholar
Postel, J. & Quétel, C. (eds.) (1983). Nouvelle histoire de la psychiatrie. Privat: Paris.Google Scholar
Prevost, C. M. (1973). La psycho-philosophie de Pierre Janet. Payot: Paris.Google Scholar
Quétel, C. & Morel, P. (1979). Les fous et leurs médecins de la renaissance au XXe siècle. Hachette: Paris.Google Scholar
Rack, P. (1982). Race, Culture and Mental Disorder. Tavistock Publications: London.Google Scholar
Rancurello, A. C. (1968). A Study of Franz Brentano. His Psychological Standpoint and his Significance in the History of Psychology. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Ravaisson, F. (1885). La philosophie en France au XIXe siècle (2nd edn). Hachette: Paris (1st edn 1867).Google Scholar
Régis, E. (1881). Des hallucinations unilatérales. L'Encéphale 1, 43–74.Google Scholar
Rémusat, C. de (1857). Bacon, sa vie, son temps, sa philosophie, et son influence jusqu'à nos jours. Hachette: Paris.Google Scholar
Rescher, N. (1979). Cognitive Systematization. A System-theoretic Approach to a Coherentist Theory of Knowledge. Basil Blackwell: Oxford.Google Scholar
Riese, W. (1960). The impact of nineteenth-century thought on psychiatry. International Record of Medicine 173, 7–19.Google Scholar
Riese, W. (1968). La méthode analytique de Condillac et ses rapports avec l'oeuvre de Philippe Pinel. Revue Philosophique 158, 321–336.Google Scholar
Roccatagliata, G. (1973). Storia della psichiatria Antica. Ulrico Hoepli: Milan.Google Scholar
Roccatagliata, G. (1981). Storia della psichiatria biologica. Nuova Guaraldi: Florence.Google Scholar
Rome, H. P. (1979). The classification of schizophrenia: a historical review. Psychiatric Annals 9, 5–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Royer-Collard, H. (1843). Examen de la doctrine de Maine de Biran sur les rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme par Antoine-Athanase Royer-Collard. Annales médico-psychologiques 2, 9–45.Google Scholar
Ryle, G. (1932). Phenomenology. Proceedings of the Aristotle Society 11 (Suppl.), 68–83.Google Scholar
Sauri, J. J. (1969). Historia de las ideas psiquiatricas. Carlos Lohlé: Buenos Aires.Google Scholar
Scull, A. T. (1979). Museums of Madness. The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth Century England. Allen Lane: London.Google Scholar
Scull, A. T. (ed.) (1981). Madhouses, Mad-doctors and Madmen. The Social History of Psychiatry in the Victorian Era. Athlone Press: London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sedgwick, P. (1981). Michel Foucault: The anti-history of psychiatry. Psychological Medicine 11, 235–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shapiro, M. B. (1975). The requirements and implications of a systematic science of psychopathology. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society 28, 149–155.Google Scholar
Shepherd, M. (1983). Introduction: The sciences and general psychopathology. In Handbook of Psychiatry, Vol. 1: General Psychopathology (ed. Shepherd, M. and Zangwill, O. L.), pp. 1–8. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.Google Scholar
Shryock, R. H. (1961). The history of quantification in medical science, Isis 52, 215–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, B. (1978). Mind and Madness in Ancient Greece. The Classical Roots of Modern Psychiatry. Cornell University Press: Ithaca.Google Scholar
Spiegelberg, H. (1972). Phenomenology in Psychology and Psychiatry. Northwestern University Press: Evanston.Google Scholar
Spiegelberg, H. (1982). The Phenomenological Movement. A Historical Introduction. Nijhoff: The Hague.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Endicott, J. & Robins, E. (1975). Clinical criteria for psychiatric diagnosis and DSM-III. American Journal of Psychiatry 132, 1187–1192.Google ScholarPubMed
Spoerl, H. D. (1936). Faculties versus traits: Gall's solution. Character and Personality 4, 216–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Starobinski, J. (1974). The role of language in psychiatric treatment in the French Romantic Age. A note on Dr Laurent Cerise. Psychological Medicine 4, 360–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sülz, K. D. & Gigerenzer, G. (1982). Über die Beeinflussung psychiatrischer Diagnoseschemata durch implizite nosologische Theorien. Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 232, 5–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swain, G. (1977). Le sujet de la folie. Naissance de la psychiatrie. Privat: Paris.Google Scholar
Swain, G. (1978). L'aliéné entre le médecin et le philosophe. Perspective psychiatriques 65, 90–99.Google Scholar
Thinès, G. (1977). Phenomenology and the Science of Behaviour. George Allen and Unwin: London.Google Scholar
Thuilleaux, M. (1973). Connaissance de la folie. Presses Universitaires de France: Paris.Google Scholar
Tizon, J. L. (1978). Introducción a la epistemologia de la psicopatologia y la psiquiatria. Ariel: Barcelona.Google Scholar
Wallace, E. R. IV & Pressley, L. C. (1980). Essays on the History of Psychiatry. Hall Psychiatric Institute: South Carolina.Google Scholar
Warren, H. C. (1921). History of the Association Psychology. Scribner's Sons: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, N. (1971). Is a scientific revolution taking place in psychology? Scientific Studies 1, 407–413.Google Scholar
Wartofsky, M. W. (1979). Models. Representation and the Scientific Understanding. Reidel: Dordrecht.Google Scholar
Weibrecht, H. J. (1968). Psychiatrie im Grundriss (2nd edn). Springer: Berlin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werlinder, H. (1978). Psychopathy: A History of the Concepts. Analysis of the Origin and Development of a Family of Concepts in Psychopathology. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis: Upsala.Google Scholar
Whitwell, J. R. (1892). Pulse in insanity. In A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine (2 vols) (ed. Tuke, D. H.), pp. 1042–1052. Churchill: London.Google Scholar
Wing, J. K. (1983). Use and misuse of the PSE. British Journal of Psychiatry 143, 111–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wing, J. K., Cooper, J. E. & Sartorius, N. (1974) Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric Symptoms. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.Google Scholar
Young, R. M. (1966). Scholarship and the history of the behavioural sciences. History of Science 5, 1–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziehen, T. (1909). Introduction to Physiological Psychology (transl. Van Liew, C. C. and Bryer, O. W.). Swan Sonnenschein: London.Google Scholar
Zilboorg, G. (1941). A History of Medical Psychology. Norton: New York.Google Scholar
Zupan, M. L. (1976). The conceptual development of quantification in experimental psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 12, 145–158.3.0.CO;2-8>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed