Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T03:42:58.919Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Attention to threat in posttraumatic stress disorder as indexed by eye-tracking indices: a systematic review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 September 2018

Amit Lazarov ,
Benjamin Suarez-Jimenez ,
Amanda Tamman ,
Louise Falzon ,
Xi Zhu ,
Donald E. Edmondson  and
Yuval Neria
Amit Lazarov*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
Benjamin Suarez-Jimenez
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
Amanda Tamman
Affiliation:
New York Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
Louise Falzon
Affiliation:
Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
Xi Zhu
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
Donald E. Edmondson
Affiliation:
Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
Yuval Neria
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Amit Lazarov, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Cognitive models of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) implicate threat-related attentional biases in the etiology and phenomenology of the disorder. However, extant attentional research using reaction time (RT)-based paradigms and measures has yielded mixed results. Eye-tracking methodology has emerged in recent years to overcome several inherent drawbacks of RT-based tasks, striving to better delineate attentional processes.

Methods

A systematic review of experimental studies examining threat-related attention biases in PTSD, using eye-tracking methodology and group-comparison designs, was conducted conforming to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Studies were selected following a systematic search for publications between 1980 and December 2017 in PsycINFO, MEDLINE and the National Center for PTSD Research's Published International Literature on Traumatic Stress (PILOTS) database. Additional records were identified by employing the Similar Articles feature in PubMed, and the Cited Reference Search in ISI Web of Science. Reference sections of review articles, book chapters and studies selected for inclusion were searched for further studies. Ongoing studies were also sought through Clinicaltrials.gov.

Results

A total of 11 studies (n = 456 participants in total) were included in the final review. Results indicated little support for enhanced threat detection, hypervigilance and attentional avoidance. However, consistent evidence emerged for sustained attention on threat (i.e. attention maintenance) in PTSD.

Conclusions

This review is the first to systematically evaluate extant findings in PTSD emanating from eye-tracking studies employing group-comparison designs. Results suggest that sustained attention on threat might serve as a potential target for therapeutic intervention.

Keywords

Attention biaseye-trackingposttraumatic stress disordersystematic reviewtrauma exposure
Type
Review Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 49 , Issue 5 , April 2019 , pp. 705 - 726
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acierno, R, Ruggiero, KJ, Kilpatrick, DG, Resnick, HS and Galea, S (2006) Risk and protective factors for psychopathology among older versus younger adults after the 2004 Florida hurricanes. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 14, 1051–1059.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th Edn. text revised. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th Edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Armony, JL, Corbo, V, Clement, MH and Brunet, A (2005) Amygdala response in patients with acute PTSD to masked and unmasked emotional facial expressions. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 1961–1963.Google Scholar
Armstrong, T and Olatunji, BO (2012) Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: a meta-analytic review and synthesis. Clinical Psychology Review 32, 704–723.Google Scholar
Armstrong, T, Bilsky, SA, Zhao, M and Olatunji, BO (2013) Dwelling on potential threat cues: an eye movement marker for combat-related PTSD. Depression and Anxiety 30, 497–502.Google Scholar
Ashley, V, Honzel, N, Larsen, J, Justus, T and Swick, D (2013) Attentional bias for trauma-related words: exaggerated emotional stroop effect in Afghanistan and Iraq war veterans with PTSD. BMC Psychiatry 13, 86.Google Scholar
Aupperle, RL, Melrose, AJ, Stein, MB and Paulus, MP (2012) Executive function and PTSD: disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology 62, 686–694.Google Scholar
Bar-Haim, Y (2010) Research review: attention bias modification (ABM): a novel treatment for anxiety disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 51, 859–870.Google Scholar
Bar-Haim, Y, Lamy, D, Pergamin, L, Bakermans-Kranenburg, MJ and van Ijzendoorn, MH (2007) Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin 133, 1–27.Google Scholar
Bar-Haim, Y, Holoshitz, Y, Eldar, S, Frenkel, TI, Muller, D, Charney, DS, Pine, DS, Fox, NA and Wald, I (2010) Life-threatening danger and suppression of attention bias to threat. American Journal of Psychiatry 167, 694–698.Google Scholar
Bardeen, JR and Orcutt, HK (2011) Attentional control as a moderator of the relationship between posttraumatic stress symptoms and attentional threat bias. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 25, 1008–1018.Google Scholar
Bardeen, JR, Tull, MT, Daniel, TA, Evenden, J and Stevens, EN (2016) A preliminary investigation of the time course of attention bias variability in posttraumatic stress disorder: the moderating role of attentional control. Behaviour Change 33, 94–111.Google Scholar
Beck, AT, Ward, CH, Mendelson, M, Mock, J and Erbaugh, J (1961) An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 4, 561–571.Google Scholar
Beck, AT, Steer, RA and Garbin, MG (1988) Psychometric properties of the beck depression inventory: twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review 8, 77–100.Google Scholar
Beck, JG, Freeman, JB, Shipherd, JC, Hamblen, JL and Lackner, JM (2001) Specificity of stroop interference in patients with pain and PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 110, 536–543.Google Scholar
Beevers, CG, Lee, HJ, Wells, TT, Ellis, AJ and Telch, MJ (2011) Association of predeployment gaze bias for emotion stimuli with later symptoms of PTSD and depression in soldiers deployed in Iraq. American Journal of Psychiatry 168, 735–741.Google Scholar
Blake, DD, Weathers, FW, Nagy, LM, Kaloupek, DG, Gusman, FD, Charney, DS and Keane, TM (1995) The development of a clinician-administered PTSD scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress 8, 75–90.Google Scholar
Bradley, R, Greene, J, Russ, E, Dutra, L and Westen, D (2005) A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 214–227.Google Scholar
Bradley, MM, Miccoli, L, Escrig, MA and Lang, PJ (2008) The pupil as a measure of emotional arousal and autonomic activation. Psychophysiology 45, 602–607.Google Scholar
Bremner, JD, Vermetten, E, Vythilingam, M, Afzal, N, Schmahl, C, Elzinga, B and Charney, DS (2004) Neural correlates of the classic color and emotional stroop in women with abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 55, 612–620.Google Scholar
Breslau, N, Lucia, VC and Davis, GC (2004) Partial PTSD versus full PTSD: an empirical examination of associated impairment. Psychological Medicine 34, 1205–1214.Google Scholar
Brewin, CR and Holmes, EA (2003) Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review 23, 339–376.Google Scholar
Brewin, CR, Rose, S, Andrews, B, Green, J, Tata, P, McEvedy, C, Turner, S and Foa, EB (2002) Brief screening instrument for post-traumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry 181, 158–162.Google Scholar
Bryant, RA and Harvey, AG (1997) Attentional bias in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress 10, 635–644.Google Scholar
Bryant, RA, Harvey, AG, Gordon, E and Barry, RJ (1995) Eye movement and electrodermal responses to threat stimuli in post-traumatic stress disorder. International Journal of Psychophysiology 20, 209–213.Google Scholar
Buckley, TC, Blanchard, EB and Neill, WT (2000) Information processing and PTSD: a review of the empirical literature. Clinical Psychology Review 20, 1041–1065.Google Scholar
Cascardi, M, Armstrong, D, Chung, L and Pare, D (2015) Pupil response to threat in trauma-exposed individuals with or without PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress 28, 370–374.Google Scholar
Cassiday, KL, McNally, RJ and Zeitlin, SB (1992) Cognitive processing of trauma cues in rape victims with post-traumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 16, 283–295.Google Scholar
Chemtob, CM, Roitblat, HL, Hamada, RS, Carlson, JG and Twentyman, CT (1988) A cognitive action theory of post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2, 253–275.Google Scholar
Chen, NTM, Clarke, PJF, Watson, TL, MacLeod, C and Guastella, AJ (2014) Biased saccadic responses to emotional stimuli in anxiety: an antisaccade study. Plos One 9, e86474.Google Scholar
Cisler, JM and Koster, EHW (2010) Mechanisms of attentional biases towards threat in anxiety disorders: an integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review 30, 203–216.Google Scholar
Cisler, JM, Wolitzky-Taylor, KB, Adams, TG Jr, Babson, KA, Badour, CL and Willems, JL (2011) The emotional stroop task and posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review 31, 817–828.Google Scholar
Constans, JI, McCloskey, MS, Vasterling, JJ, Brailey, K and Mathews, A (2004) Suppression of attentional bias in PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 113, 315–323.Google Scholar
Dalgleish, T, Moradi, AR, Taghavi, MR, Neshat-Doost, HT and Yule, W (2001) An experimental investigation of hypervigilance for threat in children and adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine 31, 541–547.Google Scholar
De Ruiter, C and Brosschot, JF (1994) The emotional stroop interference effect in anxiety: attentional bias or cognitive avoidance? Behaviour Research and Therapy 32, 315–319.Google Scholar
Derakshan, N and Koster, EHW (2010) Processing efficiency in anxiety: evidence from eye-movements during visual search. Behaviour Research and Therapy 48, 1180–1185.Google Scholar
Derryberry, D and Rothbart, MK (1997) Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament. Development and Psychopathology 9, 633–652.Google Scholar
Devineni, T, Blanchard, EB, Hickling, EJ and Buckley, TC (2004) Effect of psychological treatment on cognitive bias in motor vehicle accident-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 18, 211–231.Google Scholar
Difede, J, Olden, M and Cukor, J (2014) Evidence-based treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Medicine 65, 319–332.Google Scholar
Duchowski, AT (2007) Eye Tracking Methodology Theory and Practice. London: Springer.Google Scholar
Echiverri, AM, Jaeger, JJ, Chen, JA, Moore, SA and Zoellner, LA (2011) ‘Dwelling in the past’: the role of rumination in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 18, 338–349.Google Scholar
Egeth, HE and Yantis, S (1997) Visual attention: control, representation, and time course. Annual Review of Psychology 48, 269–297.Google Scholar
Ehlers, A and Clark, DM (2000) A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 38, 319–345.Google Scholar
Ehring, T, Frank, S and Ehlers, A (2008) The role of rumination and reduced concreteness in the maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma. Cognitive Therapy and Research 32, 488–506.Google Scholar
Eide, P, Kemp, A, Silberstein, RB, Nathan, PJ and Stough, C (2002) Test-retest reliability of the emotional stroop task: examining the paradox of measurement change. The Journal of Psychology 136, 514–520.Google Scholar
Fani, N, Bradley-Davino, B, Ressler, KJ and McClure-Tone, EB (2011) Attention bias in adult survivors of childhood maltreatment with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 35, 57–67.Google Scholar
Fani, N, Jovanovic, T, Ely, TD, Bradley, B, Gutman, D, Tone, EB and Ressler, KJ (2012 a) Neural correlates of attention bias to threat in post-traumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychology 90, 134–142.Google Scholar
Fani, N, Tone, EB, Phifer, J, Norrholm, SD, Bradley, B, Ressler, KJ, Kamkwalala, A and Jovanovic, T (2012 b) Attention bias toward threat is associated with exaggerated fear expression and impaired extinction in PTSD. Psychological Medicine 42, 533–543.Google Scholar
Felmingham, KL, Bryant, RA and Gordon, E (2003) Processing angry and neutral faces in post-traumatic stress disorder: an event-related potentials study. Neuroreport 14, 777–780.Google Scholar
Felmingham, KL, Rennie, C, Manor, B and Bryant, RA (2011) Eye tracking and physiological reactivity to threatening stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 25, 668–673.Google Scholar
Ferrari, GRA, Mobius, M, van Opdorp, A, Becker, ES and Rinck, M (2016) Can't look away: an eye-tracking based attentional disengagement training for depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research 40, 672–686.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Steketee, G and Rothbaum, BO (1989) Behavioral cognitive conceptualizations of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy 20, 155–176.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Feske, U, Murdock, TB, Kozak, MJ and Mccarthy, PR (1991) Processing of threat-related information in rape victims. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100, 156–162.Google Scholar
Foa, EB, Cashman, L, Jaycox, L and Perry, K (1997) The validation of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder: the posttraumatic diagnostic scale. Psychological Assessment 9, 445–451.Google Scholar
Fox, E (1994) Attentional bias in anxiety: a defective inhibition hypothesis. Cognition and Emotion 8, 165–195.Google Scholar
Fox, E (2004) Maintenance or capture of attention in anxiety-related biases? and Yiend, J (ed.), Cognition, Emotion and Psychopathology: Theoretical, Empirical and Clinical Approaches. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 86–105.Google Scholar
Fox, E, Russo, R, Bowles, R and Dutton, K (2001) Do threatening stimuli draw or hold visual attention in subclinical anxiety? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 130, 681–700.Google Scholar
Freeman, JB and Beck, JG (2000) Cognitive interference for trauma cues in sexually abused adolescent girls with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 29, 245–256.Google Scholar
Gerdes, ABM, Alpers, GW and Pauli, P (2008) When spiders appear suddenly: spider-phobic patients are distracted by task-irrelevant spiders. Behaviour Research and Therapy 46, 174–187.Google Scholar
Goodwin, H, Yiend, J and Hirsch, CR (2017) Generalized anxiety disorder, worry and attention to threat: a systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review 54, 107–122.Google Scholar
Harvey, AG, Bryant, RA and Rapee, RM (1996) Preconscious processing of threat in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 20, 613–623.Google Scholar
Hayes, JP, Vanelzakker, MB and Shin, LM (2012) Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Frontiers in Integrative neuroscience 6, 89.Google Scholar
Hayhoe, M and Ballard, D (2005) Eye movements in natural behavior. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9, 188–194.Google Scholar
Hermans, D, Vansteenwegen, D and Eelen, P (1999) Eye movement registration as a continuous index of attention deployment: data from a group of spider anxious students. Cognition and Emotion 13, 419–434.Google Scholar
Huijding, J, Mayer, B, Koster, EHW and Muris, P (2011) To Look or Not to Look: an eye movement study of hypervigilance during change detection in high and low spider fearful students. Emotion 11, 666–674.Google Scholar
Iacoviello, BM, Wu, G, Abend, R, Murrough, JW, Feder, A, Fruchter, E, Levinstein, Y, Wald, I, Bailey, CR, Pine, DS, Neumeister, A, Bar-Haim, Y and Charney, DS (2014) Attention bias variability and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress 27, 232–239.Google Scholar
In-Albon, T and Schneider, S (2010) Using eye tracking methodology in children with anxiety disorders. In Hadwin, JA and Field, AP (eds), Information Processing Biases and Anxiety: A Developmental Perspective. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, pp. 129–149.Google Scholar
Isaacowitz, DM (2012) Mood regulation in real time: age differences in the role of looking. Current Directions in Psychological Science 21, 237–242.Google Scholar
Isaacowitz, DM and Choi, Y (2012) Looking, feeling, and doing: are there age differences in attention, mood, and behavioral responses to skin cancer information? Health Psychology 31, 650–659.Google Scholar
Jakupcak, M, Conybeare, D, Phelps, L, Hunt, S, Holmes, HA, Felker, B, Klevens, M and McFall, ME (2007) Anger, hostility, and aggression among Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans reporting PTSD and subthreshold PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress 20, 945–954.Google Scholar
Jarde, A, Losilla, JM, Vives, J and Rodrigo, MF (2013) Q-Coh: a tool to screen the methodological quality of cohort studies in systematic reviews and meta-analyses. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology 13, 138–146.Google Scholar
Just, MA and Carpenter, PA (1976) Eye fixations and cognitive-processes. Cognitive Psychology 8, 441–480.Google Scholar
Kaczkurkin, AN, Burton, PC, Chazin, SM, Manbeck, AB, Espensen-Sturges, T, Cooper, SE, Sponheim, SR and Lissek, S (2017) Neural substrates of overgeneralized conditioned fear in PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry 174, 125–134.Google Scholar
Kaspi, SP, McNally, RJ and Amir, N (1995) Cognitive processing of emotional information in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research 19, 433–444.Google Scholar
Kimble, MO, Frueh, BC and Marks, L (2009) Does the modified stroop effect exist in PTSD? Evidence from dissertation abstracts and the peer reviewed literature. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23, 650–655.Google Scholar
Kimble, MO, Fleming, K, Bandy, C, Kim, J and Zambetti, A (2010) Eye tracking and visual attention to threating stimuli in veterans of the Iraq War. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 24, 293–299.Google Scholar
Kimble, MO, Boxwala, M, Bean, W, Maletsky, K, Halper, J, Spollen, K and Fleming, K (2014) The impact of hypervigilance: evidence for a forward feedback loop. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 28, 241–245.Google Scholar
Knight, M, Seymour, TL, Gaunt, JT, Baker, C, Nesmith, K and Mather, M (2007) Aging and goal-directed emotional attention: distraction reverses emotional biases. Emotion 7, 705–714.Google Scholar
Konnert, C and Wong, M (2015) Age differences in PTSD among Canadian veterans: age and health as predictors of PTSD severity. International Psychogeriatrics 27, 297–304.Google Scholar
Kowler, E, Anderson, E, Dosher, B and Blaser, E (1995) The role of attention in the programming of saccades. Vision Research 35, 1897–1916.Google Scholar
Kruijt, AW, Field, AP and Fox, E (2016) Capturing dynamics of biased attention: are new attention variability measures the way forward? Plos ONE 11, e0166600.Google Scholar
Krystal, JH, Davisd, LL, Neylanf, TC, Raskindj, MA, Schnurrl, PP, Steinh, MB, Vessicchiob, J, Shinerl, B, Gleasona, TD and Huangn, GD (2017) It is time to address the crisis in the pharmacotherapy of posttraumatic stress disorder: a consensus statement of the PTSD psychopharmacology working group. Biological Psychiatry 82, e51–e59.Google Scholar
Lang, PJ, Bradley, MM, Fitzsimmons, JR, Cuthbert, BN, Scott, JD, Moulder, B and Nangia, V (1998) Emotional arousal and activation of the visual cortex: an fMRI analysis. Psychophysiology 35, 199–210.Google Scholar
Lang, PJ, Bradley, MM and Cuthbert, BN (2008) International affective picture system (IAPS): Affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual (Technical Report A-8). Gainesville, FL: University of Florida.Google Scholar
Lazarov, A, Abend, R and Bar-Haim, Y (2016) Social anxiety is related to increased dwell time on socially threatening faces. Journal of Affective Disorders 193, 282–288.Google Scholar
Lazarov, A, Neria, Y, Edmondson, DE, Falzon, L and Tamman, A (2017 a) Eye tracking of attention to threat in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PROSPERO 2017 CRD42017056785.Google Scholar
Lazarov, A, Pine, DS and Bar-Haim, Y (2017 b) Gaze-contingent music reward therapy for social anxiety disorder: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry 174, 649–656.Google Scholar
Lazarov, A, Ben-Zion, Z, Shamai, D, Pine, DS and Bar-Haim, Y (2018) Free viewing of sad and happy faces in depression: a potential target for attention bias modification. Journal of Affective Disorders 238, 94–100.Google Scholar
Lee, JH and Lee, JH (2012) Attentional bias to violent images in survivors of dating violence. Cognition and Emotion 26, 1124–1133.Google Scholar
Lee, JH and Lee, JH (2014) Attentional bias towards emotional facial expressions in survivors of dating violence. Cognition and Emotion 28, 1127–1136.Google Scholar
Litz, BT and Keane, TM (1989) Information processing in anxiety disorders: application to the understanding of post-traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review 9, 243–257.Google Scholar
Macatee, RJ, Albanese, BJ, Schmidt, NB and Cougle, JR (2017) Attention bias towards negative emotional information and its relationship with daily worry in the context of acute stress: an eye-tracking study. Behaviour Research and Therapy 90, 96–110.Google Scholar
MacLeod, C, Mathews, A and Tata, P (1986) Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 95, 15–20.Google Scholar
Martinson, AA, Sigmon, ST, Craner, J, Rothstein, E and McGillicuddy, M (2013) Processing of intimacy-related stimuli in survivors of sexual trauma: the role of PTSD. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 28, 1886–1908.Google Scholar
Mather, M and Carstensen, LL (2005) Aging and motivated cognition: the positivity effect in attention and memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9, 496–502.Google Scholar
Matlow, RB (2013) Attentional processes associated with victimization history and posttraumatic symptomatology in women exposed to intimate partner violence (Doctoral dissertation). University of Denver.Google Scholar
McNally, RJ (2018) Attentional bias for threat: crisis or opportunity? Clinical Psychology Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.05.005Google Scholar
McNally, RJ, Kaspi, SP, Riemann, BC and Zeitlin, SB (1990) Selective processing of threat cues in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 99, 398–402.Google Scholar
McNally, RJ, Amir, N and Lipke, HJ (1996) Subliminal processing of threat cues in posttraumatic stress disorder? Journal of Anxiety Disorders 10, 115–128.Google Scholar
Michael, T, Halligan, SL, Clark, DM and Ehlers, A (2007) Rumination in posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety 24, 307–317.Google Scholar
Miltner, WHR, Krieschel, S, Hecht, H, Trippe, R and Weiss, T (2004) Eye movements and behavioral responses to threatening and nonthreatening stimuli during visual search in phobic and nonphobic subjects. Emotion 4, 323–339.Google Scholar
Mogg, K and Bradley, BP (2004) A cognitive-motivational perspective on the processing of threat information and anxiety. In Yiend, J (ed.), Cognition, Emotion and Psychopathology: Theoretical, Empirical and Clinical Approaches. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 68–85.Google Scholar
Mogg, K, Bradley, BP, De Bono, J and Painter, M (1997) Time course of attentional bias for threat information in non-clinical anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy 35, 297–303.Google Scholar
Moher, D, Liberati, A, Tetzlaff, J, Altman, DG and Group, P (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. BMJ 339, b2535.Google Scholar
Most, SB, Chun, MM, Widders, DM and Zald, DH (2005) Attentional rubbernecking: cognitive control and personality in emotion-induced blindness. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 12, 654–661.Google Scholar
Mulckhuyse, M, Crombez, G and Van der Stigchel, S (2013) Conditioned fear modulates visual selection. Emotion 13, 529–536.Google Scholar
Mulkens, SAN, deJong, PJ and Merckelbach, H (1996) Disgust and spider phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 105, 464–468.Google Scholar
Mylle, J and Maes, M (2004) Partial posttraumatic stress disorder revisited. Journal of Affective Disorders 78, 37–48.Google Scholar
Naim, R, Abend, R, Wald, I, Eldar, S, Levi, O, Fruchter, E, Ginat, K, Halpern, P, Sipos, ML, Adler, AB, Bliese, PD, Quartana, PJ, Pine, DS and Bar-Haim, Y (2015) Threat-related attention bias variability and posttraumatic stress. American Journal of Psychiatry 172, 1242–1250.Google Scholar
Nikitin, J and Freund, AM (2011) Age and motivation predict gaze behavior for facial expressions. Psychology and Aging 26, 695–700.Google Scholar
Ohman, A, Flykt, A and Esteves, F (2001) Emotion drives attention: detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General 130, 466–478.Google Scholar
Olatunji, BO, Armstrong, T, McHugo, M and Zald, DH (2013) Heightened attentional capture by threat in veterans with PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 122, 397–405.Google Scholar
Pineles, SL, Shipherd, JC, Welch, LP and Yovel, I (2007) The role of attentional biases in PTSD: Is it interference or facilitation? Behaviour Research and Therapy 45, 1903–1913.Google Scholar
Pineles, SL, Shipherd, JC, Mostoufi, SM, Abramovitz, SM and Yovel, I (2009) Attentional biases in PTSD: more evidence for interference. Behaviour Research and Therapy 47, 1050–1057.Google Scholar
Posner, MI (1980) Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 32, 3–25.Google Scholar
Price, RB, Kuckertz, JM, Siegle, GJ, Ladouceur, CD, Silk, JS, Ryan, ND, Dahl, RE and Amir, N (2015) Empirical recommendations for improving the stability of the dot-probe task in clinical research. Psychological Assessment 27, 365–376.Google Scholar
Price, RB, Greven, IM, Siegle, GJ, Koster, EHW and De Raedt, R (2016) A novel attention training paradigm based on operant conditioning of eye gaze: preliminary findings. Emotion 16, 110–116.Google Scholar
Reid, LM, McMillan, TM and Harrison, AG (2011) PTSD, attention bias, and heart rate after severe brain injury. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 23, 454–456.Google Scholar
Reinholdt-Dunne, ML, Mogg, K, Benson, V, Bradley, BP, Hardin, MG, Liversedge, SP, Pine, DS and Ernsts, M (2012) Anxiety and selective attention to angry faces: an antisaccade study. Journal of Cognitive Psychology 24, 54–65.Google Scholar
Richards, HJ, Benson, V and Hadwin, JA (2012) The attentional processes underlying impaired inhibition of threat in anxiety: the remote distractor effect. Cognition and Emotion 26, 934–942.Google Scholar
Rinck, M, Reinecke, A, Ellwart, T, Heuer, K and Becker, ES (2005) Speeded detection and increased distraction in fear of spiders: evidence from eye movements. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114, 235–248.Google Scholar
Rodebaugh, TL, Scullin, RB, Langer, JK, Dixon, DJ, Huppert, JD, Bernstein, A, Zvielli, A and Lenze, EJ (2016) Unreliability as a threat to understanding psychopathology: the cautionary tale of attentional bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 125, 840–851.Google Scholar
Sanchez, A, Vazquez, C, Marker, C, LeMoult, J and Joormann, J (2013) Attentional disengagement predicts stress recovery in depression: an eye-tracking study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 122, 303–313.Google Scholar
Sarapas, C, Weinberg, A, Langenecker, SA and Shankman, SA (2017) Relationships among attention networks and physiological responding to threat. Brain and Cognition 111, 63–72.Google Scholar
Schmukle, SC (2005) Unreliability of the dot probe task. European Journal of Personality 19, 595–605.Google Scholar
Schofield, CA, Johnson, AL, Inhoff, AW and Coles, ME (2012) Social anxiety and difficulty disengaging threat: evidence from eye-tracking. Cognition and Emotion 26, 300–311.Google Scholar
Schoorl, M, Putman, P and van Der Does, W (2013) Attentional bias modification in posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 82, 99–105.Google Scholar
Sergerie, K, Chochol, C and Armony, JL (2008) The role of the amygdala in emotional processing: a quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 32, 811–830.Google Scholar
Shechner, T, Jarcho, JM, Britton, JC, Leibenluft, E, Pine, DS and Nelson, EE (2013) Attention bias of anxious youth during extended exposure of emotional face pairs: an eye-tracking study. Depression and Anxiety 30, 14–21.Google Scholar
Sheehan, DV, Lecrubier, Y, Sheehan, KH, Amorim, P, Janavs, J, Weiller, E, Hergueta, T, Baker, R and Dunbar, GC (1998) The Mini-International Meuropsychiatric Interview (MINI): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 59, 22–33.Google Scholar
Shin, LM, Whalen, PJ, Pitman, RK, Bush, G, Macklin, ML, Lasko, NB, Orr, SP, McInerney, SC and Rauch, SL (2001) An fMRI study of anterior cingulate function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biologocal Psychiatry 50, 932–942.Google Scholar
Shvil, E, Rusch, HL, Sullivan, GM and Neria, Y (2013) Neural, psychophysiological, and behavioral markers of fear processing in PTSD: a review of the literature. Current Psychiatry Reports 15, 358.Google Scholar
Sipos, ML, Bar-Haim, Y, Abend, R, Adler, AB and Bliese, PD (2014) Postdeployment threat-related attention bias interacts with combat exposure to account for PTSD and anxiety symptoms in soldiers. Depression and Anxiety 31, 124–129.Google Scholar
Skinner, IW, Hubscher, M, Moseley, GL, Lee, H, Wand, BM, Traeger, AC, Gustin, SM and McAuley, JH (2017) The reliability of eyetracking to assess attentional bias to threatening words in healthy individuals. Behavior Research Methods, 1–15.Google Scholar
Smith, DT, Rorden, C and Jackson, SR (2004) Exogenous orienting of attention depends upon the ability to execute eye movements. Current Biology 14, 792–795.Google Scholar
Spaniol, J, Voss, A and Grady, CL (2008) Aging and emotional memory: cognitive mechanisms underlying the positivity effect. Psychology and Aging 23, 859–872.Google Scholar
Spielberger, CD, Gorsuch, RL, Lushene, R, Vagg, PR and Jacobs, GA (1983) Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.Google Scholar
Spitzer, RL, Williams, JB, Gibbons, M and First, M (1996) Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV. Axis I Disorders. New York: Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute.Google Scholar
Staugaard, SR (2009) Reliability of two versions of the dot-probe task using photographic faces. Psychology Science 51, 339–350.Google Scholar
Stewart, LH (2012) Capturing hypervigilance: attention biases in elevated trait anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder (Doctoral dissertation). UCL (University College London).Google Scholar
Strauss, GP, Allen, DN, Jorgensen, ML and Cramer, SL (2005) Test-retest reliability of standard and emotional stroop tasks - An investigation of color-word and picture-word versions. Assessment 12, 330–337.Google Scholar
Thomas, BH, Ciliska, D, Dobbins, M and Micucci, S (2004) A process for systematically reviewing the literature: providing the research evidence for public health nursing interventions. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing 1, 176–184.Google Scholar
Thomas, CL, Goegan, LD, Newman, KR, Arndt, JE and Sears, CR (2013) Attention to threat images in individuals with clinical and subthreshold symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 27, 447–455.Google Scholar
Tolin, DF, Lohr, JM, Lee, TC and Sawchuk, CN (1999) Visual avoidance in specific phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 37, 63–70.Google Scholar
Verwoerd, J, Wessel, I, de Jong, PJ and Nieuwenhuis, MMW (2009) Preferential processing of visual trauma-film reminders predicts subsequent intrusive memories. Cognition and Emotion 23, 1537–1551.Google Scholar
Verwoerd, J, Wessel, I and de Jong, PJ (2010) Attentional bias for trauma-film reminders: towards a laboratory analogue for studying the role of attention in the persistence of intrusive memories. Applied Cognitive Psychology 24, 425–436.Google Scholar
Waechter, S and Stolz, JA (2015) Trait anxiety, state anxiety, and attentional bias to threat: assessing the psychometric properties of response time measures. Cognitive Therapy and Research 39, 441–458.Google Scholar
Waechter, S, Nelson, AL, Wright, C, Hyatt, A and Oakman, J (2014) Measuring attentional bias to threat: reliability of dot probe and eye movement indices. Cognitive Therapy and Research 38, 313–333.Google Scholar
Wald, I, Shechner, T, Bitton, S, Holoshitz, Y, Charney, DS, Muller, D, Fox, NA, Pine, DS and Bar-Haim, Y (2011) Attention bias away from threat during life threatening danger predicts ptsd symptoms at one-year follow-up. Depression and Anxiety 28, 406–411.Google Scholar
Wald, I, Degnan, KA, Gorodetsky, E, Charney, DS, Fox, NA, Fruchter, E, Goldman, D, Lubin, G, Pine, DS and Bar-Haim, Y (2013) Attention to threats and combat-related posttraumatic stress symptoms prospective associations and moderation by the serotonin transporter gene. JAMA Psychiatry 70, 401–409.Google Scholar
Wald, I, Fruchter, E, Ginat, K, Stolin, E, Dagan, D, Bliese, PD, Quartana, PJ, Sipos, ML, Pine, DS and Bar-Haim, Y (2016) Selective prevention of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder using attention bias modification training: a randomized controlled trial. Psychological Medicine 46, 2627–2636.Google Scholar
Weathers, F, Litz, BT, Huska, JA and Keane, TM (1991). The PTSD Checklist (PCL). Boston VA Medical Centre: Boston: National Centre for PTSD.Google Scholar
Weierich, MR, Treat, TA and Hollingworth, A (2008) Theories and measurement of visual attentional processing in anxiety. Cognition and Emotion 22, 985–1018.Google Scholar
Wermes, R, Lincoln, TM and Helbig-Lang, S (2017) How well can we measure visual attention? Psychometric properties of manual response times and first fixation latencies in a visual search paradigm. Cognitive Therapy and Research 41, 588–599.Google Scholar
Williams, JMG, Mathews, A and MacLeod, C (1996) The emotional stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin 120, 3–24.Google Scholar
Wolfe, J, Kimerling, R, Brown, PJ, Chrestman, KR and Levin, K (1996). Psychometric review of the life stressor checklist-revised. In Stamm, BH (ed.), Measurement of Stress, Trauma, and Adaptation. Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press, pp. 198–201.Google Scholar
Wright, RD and Ward, LM (2008) Orienting of Attention. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Yiend, J (2010) The effects of emotion on attention: a review of attentional processing of emotional information. Cognition and Emotion 24, 3–47.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Lazarov et al. supplementary material

Lazarov et al. supplementary material 1

Download Lazarov et al. supplementary material(File)
File 16.5 KB