Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T22:40:24.854Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Attention and inhibition in children with ASD, ADHD and co-morbid ASD + ADHD: an event-related potential study

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 May 2013

C. Tye ,
P. Asherson ,
K. L. Ashwood ,
B. Azadi ,
P. Bolton  and
G. McLoughlin
C. Tye*
Affiliation:
MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
P. Asherson
Affiliation:
MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
K. L. Ashwood
Affiliation:
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
B. Azadi
Affiliation:
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
P. Bolton
Affiliation:
MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
G. McLoughlin
Affiliation:
MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK Swartz Center for Computational Neuroscience, Institute for Neural Computation, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: C. Tye, Ph.D., MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Substantial overlap has been reported between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Deficits in executive function (EF) are characteristic of both disorders but these impairments have not been compared directly across pure and co-morbid cases using event-related potentials (ERPs).

Method

Behavioural parameters and ERPs were recorded during a flankered cued-continuous performance test (CPT-OX) administered to 8–13-year-old boys with ASD (n = 19), ADHD (n = 18), co-morbid ASD + ADHD (n = 29) and typically developing controls (TD; n = 26). Preparatory processing (contingent negative variation, CNV) and attentional orienting (Cue-P3) at cues, response execution at targets (Go-P3), inhibitory processing at non-targets (NoGo-P3) and conflict monitoring between target and non-target trials (Go-N2 v. NoGo-N2) were examined.

Results

Categorical diagnoses and quantitative trait measures indicated that participants with ADHD (ADHD/ASD + ADHD) made more omission errors and exhibited increased reaction-time (RT) variability and reduced amplitude of the Cue-P3 and NoGo-P3 compared to TD/ASD participants. Participants with ASD (ASD/ ASD + ADHD) demonstrated reduced N2 enhancement from Go to NoGo trials compared to TD/ADHD participants. Participants with ASD-only displayed enhanced CNV amplitude compared to ASD + ADHD and TD participants.

Conclusions

Children with ADHD show deficits in attentional orienting and inhibitory control whereas children with ASD show abnormalities in conflict monitoring and response preparation. Children with co-morbid ASD + ADHD present as an additive co-occurrence with deficits of both disorders, although non-additive effects are suggested for response preparation. Measuring ERPs that index attention and inhibition is useful in disentangling cognitive markers of ASD and ADHD and elucidating the basis of co-occurring ASD + ADHD to guide clinical assessment.

Keywords

ADHDASDchildrenco-morbiditycontinuous performance test (CPT)event-related potentials (ERPs)
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 44 , Issue 5 , April 2014 , pp. 1101 - 1116
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Albrecht, B, Banaschewski, T, Brandeis, D, Heinrich, H, Rothenberger, A (2005). Response inhibition deficits in externalizing child psychiatric disorders: an ERP-study with the Stop-task. Behavioral and Brain Functions 1, 22.Google Scholar
Albrecht, B, Brandeis, D, Uebel, H, Heinrich, H, Mueller, UC, Hasselhorn, M, Steinhausen, H-C, Rothenberger, A, Banaschewski, T (2008). Action monitoring in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, their nonaffected siblings, and normal control subjects: evidence for an endophenotype. Biological Psychiatry 64, 615–625.Google Scholar
Albrecht, B, Brandeis, D, Uebel, H, Valko, L, Heinrich, H, Drechsler, R, Heise, A, Mueller, U, Steinhausen, H, Rothenberger, A (2012). Familiality of neural preparation and response control in childhood attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Psychological Medicine. Published online: 3 12 2012 . doi:10.1017/S003329171200270X.Google Scholar
APA (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Banaschewski, T, Brandeis, D (2007). Annotation: what electrical brain activity tells us about brain function that other techniques cannot tell us – a child psychiatric perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48, 415–435.Google Scholar
Banaschewski, T, Brandeis, D, Heinrich, H, Albrecht, B, Brunner, E, Rothenberger, A (2003). Association of ADHD and conduct disorder – brain electrical evidence for the existence of a distinct subtype. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 44, 356–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Banaschewski, T, Brandeis, D, Heinrich, H, Albrecht, B, Brunner, E, Rothenberger, A (2004). Questioning inhibitory control as the specific deficit of ADHD – evidence from brain electrical activity. Journal of Neural Transmission 111, 841–864.Google Scholar
Berument, SK, Rutter, M, Lord, C, Pickles, A, Bailey, A (1999). Autism screening questionnaire: diagnostic validity. British Journal of Psychiatry 175, 444–451.Google Scholar
Brandeis, D, Banaschewski, T, Baving, L, Georgiewa, P, Blanz, B, Schmidt, MH, Warnke, A, Steinhausen, H-C, Rothenberger, A, Scheuerpflug, P (2002). Multicenter P300 brain mapping of impaired attention to cues in hyperkinetic children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41, 990–998.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bühler, E, Bachmann, C, Goyert, H, Heinzel-Gutenbrunner, M, Kamp-Becker, I (2011). Differential diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder by means of inhibitory control and ‘theory of mind’. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 41, 1718–1726.Google Scholar
Burt, S, Larsson, H, Lichtenstein, P, Klump, K (2012). Additional evidence against shared environmental contributions to attention-deficit/hyperactivity problems. Behavior Genetics 42, 711–721.Google Scholar
Burt, SA (2009). Rethinking environmental contributions to child and adolescent psychopathology: a meta-analysis of shared environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin 135, 608–637.Google Scholar
Chen, W, Zhou, K, Sham, P, Franke, B, Kuntsi, J, Campbell, D, Fleischman, K, Knight, J, Andreou, P, Arnold, R, Altink, M, Boer, F, Boholst, MJ, Buschgens, C, Butler, L, Christiansen, H, Fliers, E, Howe-Forbes, R, Gabriels, I, Heise, A, Korn-Lubetzki, I, Marco, R, Medad, S, Minderaa, R, Muller, UC, Mulligan, A, Psychogiou, L, Rommelse, N, Sethna, V, Uebel, H, McGuffin, P, Plomin, R, Banaschewski, T, Buitelaar, J, Ebstein, R, Eisenberg, J, Gill, M, Manor, I, Miranda, A, Mulas, F, Oades, RD, Roeyers, H, Rothenberger, A, Sergeant, J, Sonuga-Barke, E, Steinhausen, H-C, Taylor, E, Thompson, M, Faraone, SV, Asherson, P (2008). DSM-IV combined type ADHD shows familial association with sibling trait scores: a sampling strategy for QTL linkage. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics 147B, 1450–1460.Google Scholar
Clark, T, Feehan, C, Tinline, C, Vostanis, P (1999). Autistic symptoms in children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 8, 50–55.Google Scholar
Clarke, AR, Barry, RJ, Irving, AM, McCarthy, R, Selikowitz, M (2011). Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autistic features: EEG evidence for comorbid disorders. Psychiatry Research 185, 225–231.Google Scholar
Conners, C (2008). Conners 3rd Edition. Multi-Health Systems: North Tonawanda, NY.Google Scholar
Corbett, BA, Constantine, LJ, Hendren, R, Rocke, D, Ozonoff, S (2009). Examining executive functioning in children with autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and typical development. Psychiatry Research 166, 210.Google Scholar
Courchesne, E, Lincoln, A, Yeung-Courchesne, R, Elmasian, R, Grillon, C (1989). Pathophysiologic findings in nonretarded autism and receptive developmental language disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 19, 1–17.Google Scholar
Doehnert, M, Brandeis, D, Imhof, K, Drechsler, R, Steinhausen, H-C (2010). Mapping attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder from childhood to adolescence: no neurophysiologic evidence for a developmental lag of attention but some for inhibition. Biological Psychiatry 67, 608–616.Google Scholar
Doehnert, M, Brandeis, D, Straub, M, Steinhausen, H-C, Drechsler, R (2008). Slow cortical potential neurofeedback in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: is there neurophysiological evidence for specific effects? Journal of Neural Transmission 115, 1445–1456.Google Scholar
Elsabbagh, M, Divan, G, Koh, Y-J, Kim, YS, Kauchali, S, Marcín, C, Montiel-Nava, C, Patel, V, Paula, CS, Wang, C, Yasamy, MT, Fombonne, E (2012). Global prevalence of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Autism Research 5, 160–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fallgatter, AJ, Ehlis, A-C, Seifert, J, Strik, WK, Scheuerpflug, P, Zillessen, KE, Herrmann, MJ, Warnke, A (2004). Altered response control and anterior cingulate function in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder boys. Clinical Neurophysiology 115, 973–981.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faraone, SV, Perlis, RH, Doyle, AE, Smoller, JW, Goralnick, JJ, Holmgren, MA, Sklar, P (2005). Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 57, 1313–1323.Google Scholar
Geurts, H, Verte, S, Oosterlaan, J, Roeyers, H, Sergeant, J (2004). How specific are executive functioning deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45, 836–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, M, Mostowsky, S, Cutting, L, Mahone, E, Astor, B, Denckla, M, Landa, R (2005). Subtle executive impairment in children with autism and children with ADHD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 35, 279–293.Google Scholar
Goodman, R (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 38, 581–586.Google Scholar
Gotham, K, Risi, S, Pickles, A, Lord, C (2007). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule: revised algorithms for improved diagnostic validity. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 37, 613–627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Groen, Y, Wijers, AA, Mulder, LJ, Waggeveld, B, Minderaa, RB, Althaus, M (2008). Error and feedback processing in children with ADHD and children with autistic spectrum disorder: an EEG event-related potential study. Clinical Neurophysiology 119, 2476–2493.Google Scholar
Groom, MJ, Cahill, JD, Bates, AT, Jackson, GM, Calton, TG, Liddle, PF, Hollis, C (2010). Electrophysiological indices of abnormal error-processing in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 51, 66–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Happé, F, Booth, R, Charlton, R, Hughes, C (2006). Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: examining profiles across domains and ages. Brain and Cognition 61, 25–39.Google Scholar
Hennighausen, K, Schulte-Korne, G, Warnke, A, Remschmidt, H (2000). Contingent negative variation (CNV) in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder – an experimental study using the Continuous Performance Test (CPT). Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie 28, 239–246.Google Scholar
Hill, E (2004). Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Developmental Review 24, 189–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoeksma, M, Kemner, C, Kenemans, J, van Engeland, H (2006). Abnormal selective attention normalizes P3 amplitudes in PDD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 36, 643–654.Google Scholar
Holmboe, K, Elsabbagh, M, Volein, A, Tucker, LA, Baron-Cohen, S, Bolton, P, Charman, T, Johnson, MH (2010). Frontal cortex functioning in the infant broader autism phenotype. Infant Behavior and Development 33, 482–491.Google Scholar
IMGSAC (1998). A full genome screen for autism with evidence for linkage to a region on chromosome 7q. International Molecular Genetic Study of Autism Consortium. Human Molecular Genetics 69, 570–581.Google Scholar
Jeste, S, Nelson, C (2009). Event related potentials in the understanding of autism spectrum disorders: an analytical review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 39, 495–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, K, Robertson, I, Kelly, S, Silk, T, Barry, E, Daibhis, A, Watchorn, A, Keavey, M, Fitzgerald, M, Gallagher, L, Gill, M, Bellgrove, M (2007). Dissociation in performance of children with ADHD and high-functioning autism on a task of sustained attention. Neuropsychologia 45, 2234–2245.Google Scholar
Jonkman, LM (2006). The development of preparation, conflict monitoring and inhibition from early childhood to young adulthood: a Go/Nogo ERP study. Brain Research 1097, 181–193.Google Scholar
Jung, T-P, Makeig, S, Humphries, C, Lee, T-W, McKeown, MJ, Iragui, V, Sejnowski, TJ (2000). Removing electroencephalographic artifacts by blind source separation. Psychophysiology 37, 163–178.Google Scholar
Kemner, C, van der Gaag, RJ, Verbaten, M, van Engeland, H (1999). ERP differences among subtypes of pervasive developmental disorders. Biological Psychiatry 46, 781–789.Google Scholar
Klein, C, Feige, B (2005). An independent components analysis (ICA) approach to the study of developmental differences in the saccadic contingent negative variation. Biological Psychology 70, 105–114.Google Scholar
Klein, C, Wendling, K, Huettner, P, Ruder, H, Peper, M (2006). Intra-subject variability in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 60, 1088–1097.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuntsi, J, Wood, A, Rijsdijk, F, Johnson, K, Andreou, P, Albrecht, B, Arias-Vasquez, A, Buitelaar, J, McLoughlin, G, Rommelse, N, Sergeant, J, Sonuga-Barke, E, Uebel, H, van der Meere, J, Banaschewski, T, Gill, M, Manor, I, Miranda, A, Mulas, F, Oades, R, Roeyers, H, Rothenberger, A, Steinhausen, H, Faraone, S, Asherson, P (2010). Separation of cognitive impairments in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder into two familial factors. Archives of General Psychiatry 67, 1159–1166.Google Scholar
Lord, C, Rutter, M, Couteur, A (1994). Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 24, 659–685.Google Scholar
McLoughlin, G, Albrecht, B, Banaschewski, T, Rothenberger, A, Brandeis, D, Asherson, P, Kuntsi, J (2009). Performance monitoring is altered in adult ADHD: a familial event-related potential investigation. Neuropsychologia 47, 3134–3142.Google Scholar
McLoughlin, G, Albrecht, B, Banaschewski, T, Rothenberger, A, Brandeis, D, Asherson, P, Kuntsi, J (2010). Electrophysiological evidence for abnormal preparatory states and inhibitory processing in adult ADHD. Behavioral and Brain Functions 6, 66.Google Scholar
McLoughlin, G, Asherson, P, Albrecht, B, Banaschewski, T, Rothenberger, A, Brandeis, D, Kuntsi, J (2011). Cognitive-electrophysiological indices of attentional and inhibitory processing in adults with ADHD: familial effects. Behavioral and Brain Functions 7, 26.Google Scholar
McLoughlin, G, Kuntsi, J, Brandeis, D, Banaschewski, T (2005). Electrophysiological parameters in psychiatric research: ADHD. Psychiatry 4, 14–18.Google Scholar
Nyden, A, Gillberg, C, Hjelmquist, E, Heimann, M (1999). Executive function/attention deficits in boys with Asperger syndrome, attention disorder and reading/writing disorder. Autism 3, 213–228.Google Scholar
Nyden, A, Niklasson, L, Stahlberg, O, Anckarsater, H, Wentz, E, Rastam, M, Gillberg, C (2010). Adults with autism spectrum disorders and ADHD neuropsychological aspects. Research in Developmental Disabilities 31, 1659–1668.Google Scholar
O'Hearn, K, Asato, M, Ordaz, S, Luna, B (2008). Neurodevelopment and executive function in autism. Development and Psychopathology 20, 1103–1132.Google Scholar
Overtoom, CCE, Verbaten, MN, Kemner, C, Kenemans, JL, van Engeland, H, Buitelaar, JK, Camfferman, G, Koelega, HS (1998). Associations between event-related potentials and measures of attention and inhibition in the continuous performance task in children with ADHD and normal controls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 37, 977–985.Google Scholar
Ozonoff, S, Cook, I, Coon, H (2004). Performance on Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery subtests sensitive to frontal lobe function in people with autistic disorder: evidence from the Collaborative Programs of Excellence in Autism network. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 34, 139–150.Google Scholar
Ozonoff, S, Jensen, J (1999). Brief report: specific executive function profiles in three neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 29, 171–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pliszka, SR, Liotti, M, Woldorff, MG (2000). Inhibitory control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: event-related potentials identify the processing component and timing of an impaired right-frontal response-inhibition mechanism. Biological Psychiatry 48, 238–246.Google Scholar
Polanczyk, G, de Lima, MS, Horta, BL, Biederman, J, Rohde, LA (2007). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry 164, 942–948.Google Scholar
Polanczyk, G, Jensen, P (2008). Epidemiologic considerations in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a review and update. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 17, 245–260.Google Scholar
Polderman, T, Hoekstra, R, Vinkhuyzen, A, Sullivan, P, van der Sluis, S, Posthuma, D (2012). Attentional switching forms a genetic link between attention problems and autistic traits in adults. Psychological Medicine. Published online: 21 12 2012 . doi:10.1017/S0033291712002863.Google Scholar
Pritchard, WS, Raz, N, August, GJ (1987). Visual augmenting/reducing and P300 in autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 17, 231–242.Google Scholar
Rommelse, N, Franke, B, Geurts, H, Hartman, C, Buitelaar, J (2009). Shared heritability of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 19, 281–295.Google Scholar
Rommelse, N, Geurts, HM, Franke, B, Buitelaar, JK, Hartman, CA (2011). A review on cognitive and brain endophenotypes that may be common in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and facilitate the search for pleiotropic genes. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35, 1363–1396.Google Scholar
Ronald, A, Simonoff, E, Kuntsi, J, Asherson, P, Plomin, R (2008). Evidence for overlapping genetic influences on autistic and ADHD behaviours in a community twin sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 49, 535–542.Google Scholar
Rutter, M, Bailey, A, Lord, C (2003). SCQ: The Social Communication Questionnaire Manual. Western Psychological Services: Los Angeles, CA.Google Scholar
Sanders, J, Johnson, KA, Garavan, H, Gill, M, Gallagher, L (2008). A review of neuropsychological and neuroimaging research in autistic spectrum disorders: attention, inhibition and cognitive flexibility. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 2, 1–16.Google Scholar
Sergeant, J (2000). The cognitive-energetic model: an empirical approach to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24, 7–12.Google Scholar
Sergeant, JA, Geurts, H, Oosterlaan, J (2002). How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Behavioural Brain Research 130, 3–28.Google Scholar
Simonoff, E, Pickles, A, Charman, T, Chandler, S, Loucas, T, Baird, G (2008). Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 47, 921–929.Google Scholar
Sinzig, J, Morsch, D, Bruning, N, Schmidt, M, Lehmkuhl, G (2008). Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health 2, 4.Google Scholar
Sokhadze, E, Baruth, J, Tasman, A, Sears, L, Mathai, G, El-Baz, A, Casanova, M (2009). Event-related potential study of novelty processing abnormalities in autism. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 34, 37–51.Google Scholar
Spronk, M, Jonkman, LM, Kemner, C (2008). Response inhibition and attention processing in 5- to 7-year-old children with and without symptoms of ADHD: an ERP study. Clinical Neurophysiology 119, 2738–2752.Google Scholar
Strandburg, RJ, Marsh, JT, Brown, WS, Asarnow, RF, Guthrie, D, Higa, J (1993). Event-related potentials in high-functioning adult autistics: linguistic and nonlinguistic visual information processing tasks. Neuropsychologia 31, 413–434.Google Scholar
Taurines, R, Schwenck, C, Westerwald, E, Sachse, M, Siniatchkin, M, Freitag, C (2012). ADHD and autism: differential diagnosis or overlapping traits? A selective review. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders 4, 115–139.Google Scholar
Taylor, E, Schachar, R, Thorley, G, Wieselberg, M (1986). Conduct disorder and hyperactivity: I. Separation of hyperactivity and antisocial conduct in British child psychiatric patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 149, 760–767.Google ScholarPubMed
Townsend, J, Westerfield, M, Leaver, E, Makeig, S, Jung, T-P, Pierce, K, Courchesne, E (2001). Event-related brain response abnormalities in autism: evidence for impaired cerebello-frontal spatial attention networks. Cognitive Brain Research 11, 127–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsai, C-L, Pan, C-Y, Wang, C-H, Tseng, Y-T, Hsieh, K-W (2011). An event-related potential and behavioral study of impaired inhibitory control in children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 5, 1092–1102.Google Scholar
Tye, C, McLoughlin, G, Kuntsi, J, Asherson, P (2011). Electrophysiological markers of genetic risk for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine 13, e9.Google Scholar
Tye, C, Mercure, E, Ashwood, KL, Azadi, B, Asherson, P, Johnson, MH, Bolton, P, McLoughlin, G (2013). Neurophysiological responses to faces and gaze direction differentiate children with ASD, ADHD and ASD + ADHD. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 5C, 71–85.Google Scholar
Valko, L, Doehnert, M, Müller, UC, Schneider, G, Albrecht, B, Drechsler, R, Maechler, M, Steinhausen, H-C, Brandeis, D (2009). Differences in neurophysiological markers of inhibitory and temporal processing deficits in children and adults with ADHD. Journal of Psychophysiology 23, 235–246.Google Scholar
Van Leeuwen, TH, Steinhausen, HC, Overtoom, CCE, Pascual-Marqui, RD, van't Klooster, B, Rothenberger, A, Sergeant, JA, Brandeis, D (1998). The continuous performance test revisited with neuroelectric mapping: impaired orienting in children with attention deficits. Behavioural Brain Research 94, 97–110.Google Scholar
Verbaten, M, Roelofs, J, van Engeland, H, Kenemans, J, Slangen, J (1991). Abnormal visual event-related potentials of autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 21, 449–470.Google Scholar
Verte, S, Geurts, H, Roeyers, H, Oosterlaan, J, Sergeant, J (2006). The relationship of working memory, inhibition, and response variability in child psychopathology. Journal of Neuroscience Methods 151, 5–14.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) . Harcourt Assessment: San Antonio, TX.Google Scholar
Wiersema, R, van der Meere, J, Roeyers, H, Van Coster, R, Baeyens, D (2006). Event rate and event-related potentials in ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 47, 560–567.Google Scholar
Willcutt, EG, Doyle, AE, Nigg, JT, Faraone, SV, Pennington, BF (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry 57, 1336–1346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, AC, Buitelaar, J, Rijsdijk, F, Asherson, P, Kuntsi, J (2010). Rethinking shared environment as a source of variance underlying attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms: comment on Burt (2009). Psychological Bulletin 136, 331–340.Google Scholar
Yerys, BE, Wallace, GL, Sokoloff, JL, Shook, DA, James, JD, Kenworthy, L (2009). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms moderate cognition and behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research 2, 322–333.Google Scholar
Yeung, N, Cohen, JD (2006). The impact of cognitive deficits on conflict monitoring. Psychological Science 17, 164–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Tye Supplementary Material

Table S1

Download Tye Supplementary Material(File)
File 26.6 KB
Supplementary material: File

Tye Supplementary Material

Table S2

Download Tye Supplementary Material(File)
File 76.8 KB