Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T13:01:50.781Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Movement abnormalities and psychotic-like experiences in childhood: markers of developing schizophrenia?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 July 2011

D. MacManus ,
K. R. Laurens ,
E. F. Walker ,
J. L. Brasfield ,
M. Riaz  and
S. Hodgins
D. MacManus*
Affiliation:
Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
K. R. Laurens
Affiliation:
Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK Research Unit for Schizophrenia Epidemiology, School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia
E. F. Walker
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Emory University Laney Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Atlanta, USA
J. L. Brasfield
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Emory University Laney Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Atlanta, USA
M. Riaz
Affiliation:
Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
S. Hodgins
Affiliation:
Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany Département de Psychiatrie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
*
*Address for correspondence: D. MacManus, BSc, MBChB, MSc, MRCPsych, Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Sciences (Box P023), Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Both involuntary dyskinetic movements and psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) are reported to be antecedents of schizophrenia that may reflect dysfunctional dopaminergic activity in the striatum. The present study compared dyskinetic movement abnormalities displayed by children with multiple antecedents of schizophrenia (ASz), including speech and/or motor developmental lags or problems, internalising/externalising problems in the clinical range, and PLEs, with those displayed by children with no antecedents (noASz).

Method

The sample included 21 ASz and 31 noASz children, aged 9–12 years old. None had taken psychotropic medication or had relatives with psychosis. The antecedents of schizophrenia were assessed using questionnaires completed by children and caregivers. A trained rater, blind to group status, coded dyskinetic movement abnormalities using a validated tool from videotapes of interviews with the children.

Results

ASz children reported, on average, ‘certain experience’ of 2.5 PLEs, while noASz children, by definition, reported none. The ASz children, as compared with noASz children, displayed significantly more dyskinetic movement abnormalities in total, and in the facial and the upper-body regions, after controlling for sex and age. Receiver operator characteristics analyses yielded high area under the curve values for the total score (0.94), facial score (0.91) and upper-body score (0.86), indicating that these scores distinguished between the ASz and noASz children with great accuracy.

Conclusions

Brief questionnaires identified children with multiple antecedents of schizophrenia who displayed significantly more involuntary dyskinetic movement abnormalities than children without antecedents. The presence of PLEs and dyskinesias could reflect early disruption of striatal dopamine circuits.

Keywords

Antecedentsdopaminedyskinesiapsychosisrisk factors
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 42 , Issue 1 , January 2012 , pp. 99 - 109
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, GE, Crutcher, MD, DeLong, MR (1991). Basal ganglia–thalamocortical circuits: parallel substrates for motor, oculomotor, ‘prefrontal’ and ‘limbic’ functions. Progressive Brain Research 86, 119–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angold, A, Weissman, MM, John, K, Merikancas, KR, Prusoff, BA, Wickramaratne, P, Gammon, GD, Warner, V (1987). Parent and child reports of depressive symptoms in children at low and high risk of depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 28, 901–915.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asnarow, JR (1988). Children at risk for schizophrenia: converging lines of evidence. Schizophrenia Bulletin 14, 613–631.Google Scholar
Boks, MP, Liddle, PF, Burgerhof, JGM, Knegtering, R, Van Den Bosch, RJ (2004). Neurological soft signs discriminating mood disorders from first episode schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 110, 29–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, M, Caspi, A, Moffitt, TE, Harrington, H, Taylor, A, Murray, RM, Poulton, R (2002). Evidence for early-childhood, pan-developmental impairment specific to schizophreniform disorder: results from a longitudinal birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 449–456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, TD, van Erp, TGM, Rosso, IM, Huttunen, M, Lönnqvist, J, Pirkola, T, Salonen, O, Valanne, L, Poutanen, V, Standertskjöld-Nordenstam, C (2002). Fetal hypoxia and structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and controls. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 35–41.Google Scholar
Cassady, SL, Adami, H, Moran, DC (1998). Spontaneous dyskinesia in patients with schizophrenia spectrum personality. American Journal of Psychiatry 155, 70–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, JD (2002). Neural networks of prefrontal cortex and cognitive control. In: Handbook of Neuropsychology, 2nd edn, vol 7 (ed. Grafman, J). Elsevier Science.Google Scholar
Costello, A, Edelbrock, C, Kalas, R, Kessler, M, Klaric, S (1982). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children: Child Version. National Institute of Mental Health: Rockville, MD.Google Scholar
Crow, TJ, Done, DJ, Sacker, A (1995). Childhood precursors of psychosis as clues to its evolutionary origins. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 245, 61–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cullen, AE, Dickson, H, West, SA, Morris, RG, Mould, GL, Hodgins, S, Murray, RM, Laurens, KR (2010). Neurocognitive deficits in children aged 9–12 years who present putative antecedents of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 121, 15–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deakin, JFW, Slater, P, Simpson, MDC, Gilchrist, AC, Skan, WJ, Royston, MC, Reynolds, GP, Cross, AJ (1989). Frontal cortical and left temporal glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia. Journal of Neurochemistry 52, 1781–1786.Google Scholar
D'Reaux, R, Neumann, CS, Rhymer, K (2000). Time of day of testing and neuropsychological performance in schizophrenia patients and healthy controls. Schizophrenia Research 45, 157–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dreher, JC, Trapp, W, Banquet, JP, Keil, M, Gunther, W, Burnod, Y (1999). Planning dysfunction in schizophrenia: impairment of potentials preceeding fixed/free and single/sequence of self-initiated finger movements. Experimental Brain Research 45, 157–167.Google Scholar
Edelbrock, C, Costello, AJ, Dulcan, MK, Conover, NC, Kala, R (1986). Parent–child agreement on child psychiatric symptoms assessed via structured interview. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 27, 181–190.Google Scholar
Fish, B, Marcus, J, Hans, SL, Auerbach, JG, Perdue, S (1992). Infants at risk for schizophrenia: sequelae of a genetic neurointegrative defect. Archives of General Psychiatry 49, 221–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, R (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 38, 581–586.Google Scholar
Goodman, R (2001). Psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 40, 1337–1345.Google Scholar
Gottesman, II, Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L (2001). Family and twin strategies as a head start in defining prodromes and endophenotypes for hypothetical early-interventions in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 51, 93–102.Google Scholar
Hans, SL, Auerbach, JG, Auerbach, AG, Marcus, J (2005). Development from birth to adolescence of children at-risk for schizophrenia. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 15, 384–394.Google Scholar
Hanssen, M, Bak, M, Bijl, R, Vollebergh, W, van Os, J (2005). The incidence and outcome of subclinical psychotic experiences in the general population. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 44, 181–191.Google Scholar
Hoff, JL, Van den Plas, AA, Wagemans, EA, Van Hilten, JJ (2001). Accelerometric assessment of levo-dopa induced dyskinesias in Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders 16, 58–61.3.0.CO;2-9>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howes, O, Kapur, S (2009). The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: version III – the final common pathway. Schizophrenia Bulletin 35, 549–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howes, O, Montgomery, AJ, Asselin, MC, Murray, R, Valli, I, Tabraham, P, Bramon-Bosch, E, Valmaggia, L, Johns, L, Broome, M, McGuire, PK, Grasby, PM (2009). Elevated striatal dopamine function linked to prodromal signs of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 13–20.Google Scholar
Hsaio, CM, Lin, KJ, Liu, CY, Tzen, KY, Yen, TC (2003). Dopamine transporter change in drug-naive schizophrenia: an imaging study with 99mTc-TRODAT-1. Schizophrenia Research 65, 39–46.Google Scholar
Isohanni, M, Jones, PB, Moilanen, K, Rantakallio, P, Veijola, J, Oja, H, Koiranen, M, Jokelainen, J, Croudace, T, Järvelin, M (2001). Early developmental milestones in adult schizophrenia and other psychoses. A 31-year follow-up of the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort. Schizophrenia Research 52, 1–19.Google Scholar
Isohanni, M, Murray, GK, Jokelain, J, Croudace, T, Jones, PB (2004). The persistence of developmental markers in childhood and adolescence and risk for schizophrenic psychoses in adult life. A 34-year follow-up of the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort. Schizophrenia Research 71, 213–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobson, S, Kelleher, I, Harley, M, Murtagh, A, Clarke, M, Blanchard, M, Connolly, C, O'Hanlon, E, Garavan, H, Cannon, M (2010). Structural and functional brain correlates of subclinical psychotic symptoms in 11–13 year old schoolchildren. NeuroImage 49, 1875–1885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, P, Murray, R, Jones, P, Rodgers, B, Marmot, M (1994). Child development risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet 344, 1398–1402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalachnik, JE, Sprague, RL (1993). The Dyskinesia Identification System Condensed User Scale (DISCUS): reliability, validity, and a total score cut-off for the mentally ill and mentally retarded populations. Journal of Clinical Psychology 49, 177–189.3.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalachnik, JE, Young, RC, Offerman, O (1989). A tardive dyskinesia evaluation and diagnosis form for applied facilities. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 20, 303–309.Google Scholar
Kelleher, I, Cannon, M (2011). Psychotic-like experiences in the general population: characterizing a high-risk group for psychosis. Psychological Medicine 41, 1–6.Google Scholar
Kelleher, I, Harley, M, Lynch, F, Arseneault, L, Fitzpatrick, C, Cannon, M (2008). Associations between childhood trauma, bullying and psychotic symptoms among a school-based adolescent sample. British Journal of Psychiatry 193, 378–382.Google Scholar
Kelleher, I, Harley, M, Murtagh, A, Cannon, M (2011). Are screening instruments valid for psychotic-like experiences? A validation study of screening questions for psychotic-like experiences using in-depth clinical interview. Schizophrenia Bulletin 37, 362–369.Google Scholar
Kestler, LP, Walker, E, Vega, EM (2001). Dopamine receptors in the brains of schizophrenia patients: a meta-analysis of the findings. Behavioural Pharmacology 12, 355–371.Google Scholar
Laurens, KR, Hodgins, S, Maughan, B, Murray, RM, Rutter, ML, Taylor, EA (2007). Community screening for psychotic-like experiences and other putative antecedents of schizophrenia in children aged 9–12 years. Schizophrenia Research 90, 130–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laurens, KR, Hodgins, S, Mould, GL, West, SA, Schoenberg, PL, Murray, RM, Taylor, EA (2010). Error-related processing dysfunction in children aged 9 to 12 years presenting putative antecedents of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 67, 238–245.Google Scholar
Laurens, KR, Hodgins, S, Taylor, EA, Murray, RM (2011). Is earlier intervention for schizophrenia possible?: Identifying antecedents of schizophrenia in children aged 9–12 years. In Schizophrenia: The Final Frontier. A Festschrift for Robin M. Murray (Maudsley Series) (ed. David, A. S., McGuffin, P. and Kapur, S.). Psychology Press: London.Google Scholar
Laurens, KR, West, SA, Murray, RM, Hodgins, S (2008). Psychotic-like experiences and other antecedents of schizophrenia in children aged 9–12 years: a comparison of ethnic and migrant groups in the United Kingdom. Psychological Medicine 38, 1103–1111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mangalore, R, Knapp, M (2007). Cost of schizophrenia in England. Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics 10, 23–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Marcus, J, Hans, SL, Auerback, JG (1993). Children at risk for schizophrenia: the Jerusalem Infant Development Study. II. Neurobehavioural deficits at school age. Archives of General Psychiatry 50, 797–809.Google Scholar
Marcus, J, Hans, SL, Lewow, E, Wilinson, L, Burack, C (1985). Neurological findings in high-risk children: childhood assessment and 5-year followup. Schizophrenia Bulletin 11, 85–100.Google Scholar
Mink, JW (2003). The basal ganglia and involuntary movements. Archives of Neurology 60, 1365–1368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mittal, VA, Dhruv, S, Tessner, K, Walder, D, Walker, E (2007). Relation of neurological soft signs to psychiatric symptoms in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 61, 1179–1186.Google Scholar
Mittal, VA, Neumann, C, Saczawa, M, Walker, E (2008). Longitudinal progression of movement abnormalities in relation to psychotic symptoms in adolescents at high risk of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 65, 165–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neumann, CS, Grimes, K, Walker, EF, Baum, K (1995). Developmental pathways to schizophrenia: behavioural subtypes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 104, 558–66.Google Scholar
Owen, F, Crow, TJ, Poulter, M, Cross, AJ, Longden, A, Riley, GJ (1978). Increased dopamine-receptor sensitivity in schizophrenia. Lancet 312, 223–226.Google Scholar
Owens, DG, Johnstone, EC (1982). Spontaneous involuntary disorders of movement: their prevalence, severity, and distribution in chronic schizophrenics with and without treatment with neuroleptics. Archives of General Psychiatry 39, 452–461.Google Scholar
Papapetropoulos, S, Mash, DC (2005). Psychotic symptoms in Parkinson's disease: from description to etiology. Journal of Neurology 252, 753–764.Google Scholar
Pencina, MJ, D'Agostino Sr, RB, D'Agostino, RB (2007). Evaluating the added predictive ability of a new marker: from area under the ROC curve to reclassification and beyond. Statistics in Medicine 27, 157–172.Google Scholar
Polanczyk, G, Moffitt, TE, Arseneault, L, Cannon, M, Ambler, A, Keefe, RSE, Houts, R, Odgers, CL, Caspi, A (2010). Etiological and clinical features of childhood psychotic symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry 67, 328–338.Google Scholar
Poulton, R, Caspi, A, Moffitt, TE, Cannon, M, Murray, RM, Harrington, H (2000). Children's self-report psychotic symptoms and adult schizophreniform disorder: a 15-year longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 1053–1058.Google Scholar
Puri, BK, Barnes, TRE, Chapman, MJ, Hutton, SB, Joyce, EM (1999). Spontaneous dyskinesia in first episode schizophrenia. Journal of Neurological and Neurosurgical Psychiatry 66, 76–78.Google Scholar
Reynolds, GP (1983). Increased concentrations and lateral asymmetry of amygdala dopamine in schizophrenia. Nature 305, 527–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roessler, W, Joachim Salize, H, van Os, J, Riecher-Rossler, A (2005). Size of burden of schizophrenia and psychotic disorders. European Neuropsychopharmacology 15, 399–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosso, IM, Bearden, CE, Hollister, JM, Gasperoni, TL, Sanchez, LE, Hadley, T, Cannon, TD (2000). Childhood neuromotor dysfunction in schizophrenia patients and their unaffected siblings: a prospective cohort study. Schizophrenia Bulletin 26, 367–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiffman, J, Walker, E, Morten, E, Schulsinger, F, Sorensen, H, Mednick, S (2004). Childhood videotaped social and neuromotor precursors of schizophrenia: a prospective investigation. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 2021–2027.Google Scholar
Seeman, P (1992). Elevated D2 in schizophrenia: role of endogenous dopamine and cerebellum: commentary on the current status of PET scanning with respect to schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 7, 55–57.Google Scholar
Seeman, P, Kapur, S (2000). Schizophrenia: more dopamine, more D2 receptors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 97, 7673–7675.Google Scholar
Siever, LJ, Kalus, OF, Keefe, RS (1990 a). Increased morbid risk for schizophrenia-related disorders in relatives of schizotypal disorder patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 47, 634–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siever, LJ, Kalus, OF, Keefe, RS (1990 b). The boundaries of schizophrenia. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 16, 217–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Y, Bevan, MD, Shink, E, Bolam, P (1998). Microcircuitry of the direct and indirect pathways of the basal ganglia. Neuroscience 86, 353–387.Google Scholar
Sprague, RL, White, DM, Ullman, R, Kalachnik, JE (1984). Methods for selecting items in a tardive dyskinesia rating scale. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 20, 339–345.Google Scholar
Swartz, MS (2008). Introduction to the CATIE Special Section. Psychiatric Services 59, 497–499.Google Scholar
Torrey, EF, Taylor, EH, Bracha, HS, Bowler, AE, Thomas, F, McNell, RR, Rawlings, PO, Quinn, PO, Bigelow, LB, Sjostrom, K, Higgins, ES, Gottesman, II (1994). Prenatal origin of schizophrenia in a subgroup of discordant monozygotic twins. Schizophrenia Bulletin 20, 423–432.Google Scholar
van Os, J, Linscott, RJ, Myin-Germeys, I, Delespaul, P, Krabbendam, L (2009). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: evidence for a psychosis proneness–persistence–impairment model of psychotic disorder. Psychological Medicine 39, 179–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waddington, JL, Crow, TJ (1988). Abnormal involuntary movements and psychosis in the preneuroleptic era and in unmedicated patients: implications for the concept of tardive dyskinesia. In: Tardive Dyskinesia: Biological Mechanisms and Clinical Aspects (ed. Wolf, M. and Mosnaim, A. D.), pp. 51–66. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Walker, E, Lewis, N, Loewy, R, Palyo, S (1999). Motor dysfunction and risk for schizophrenia. Developmental Psychopathology 11, 509–523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, EF, Neumann, LC (1996). Childhood behavioural characteristics and adult brain morphology in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 22, 93–101.Google Scholar
Walker, EF, Savoie, T, Davis, D (1994). Neuromotor precursors of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 20, 441–451.Google Scholar
Weiner, WJ, Rabinstein, A, Levin, B, Weiner, C, Shulman, L (2001). Cocaine-induced persistent dyskinesias. Neurology 57, 1525.Google Scholar
Welham, J, Isohanni, M, Jones, P, McGrath, J (2009 a). The antecedents of schizophrenia: a review of birth cohort studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin 35, 603–623.Google Scholar
Welham, J, Scott, J, Williams, G, Najman, J, Bor, W, O'Callaghan, M, McGrath, J (2009 b). Emotional and behavioural antecedents of adults who screen positive for non-affective psychosis: a 21 year birth cohort study. Psychological Medicine 39, 625–634.Google Scholar
Woods, BT, Kinnery, DK, Yurgelun-Todd, D (1986). Neurological abnormalities in schizophrenia patients and their families. Archives of General Psychiatry 43, 657–663.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yung, AR, Killachey, E, Hetrick, SE, Parker, AG, Schultze-Lutter, F, Klosterkoetter, R, Purcell, R, McGorry, PD (2007). The prevention of schizophrenia. International Review of Psychiatry 19, 633–646.Google Scholar