Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T09:42:49.022Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Geriatric depression and cognitive impairment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 June 2007

D. C. Steffens  and
G. G. Potter
D. C. Steffens*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
G. G. Potter
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: D. C. Steffens, M.D., M.H.S., Professor of Psychiatry and Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Box 3903, Durham, NC27710, USA. (Email: [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Cognitive impairment is common in geriatric depression, and depressed individuals with co-morbid cognitive impairment are at increased risk for a number of adverse medical, psychiatric and cognitive outcomes. This review focuses on clinical issues surrounding the co-occurrence of these two conditions within the context of current research. We (1) review the clinical criteria and prevalence of depression, as well as co-morbid cognitive impairment, (2) discuss factors associated with persistent cognitive impairment in depression, including dementia, and (3) review research relevant to the assessment and treatment of cognitive impairment and dementia in the context of depression. We conclude that current research on depression and cognition can inform clinical decisions that reduce the occurrence of adverse outcomes. Clinicians are encouraged to develop proactive approaches for treatment, which may include combinations of pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions.

Keywords

Cognitioncognitive impairmentdepressionelderly
Type
Invited Review
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 38 , Issue 2 , February 2008 , pp. 163 - 175
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adler, G, Chwalek, K, Jajcevic, A (2004). Six-month course of mild cognitive impairment and affective symptoms in late-life depression. European Psychiatry 19, 502–505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adler, G, Jajcevic, A (2001). Post-dexamethasone cortisol level and memory performance in elderly depressed patients. Neuroscience Letters 298, 142–144.Google Scholar
Alexopoulos, GS, Meyers, BS, Young, RC, Kalayam, B, Kakuma, T, Gabrielle, M, Sirey, J, Hull, J (2000). Executive dysfunction and long-term outcomes of geriatric depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 285–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexopoulos, GS, Raue, P, Arean, P (2003). Problem-solving therapy versus supportive therapy in geriatric major depression with executive dysfunction. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 11, 46–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
APA (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV-TR, 4th edn, text revision. American Psychiatric Association: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Arve, S, Tilvis, RS, Lehtonen, A, Valvanne, J, Sairanen, S (1999). Coexistence of lowered mood and cognitive impairment of elderly people in five birth cohorts. Aging (Milano) 11, 90–95.Google ScholarPubMed
Austin, MP, Mitchell, P, Wilhelm, K, Parker, G, Hickie, I, Brodaty, H, Chan, J, Eyers, K, Milic, M, Hadzi-Pavlovic, D (1999). Cognitive function in depression: a distinct pattern of frontal impairment in melancholia? Psychological Medicine 29, 73–85.Google Scholar
Ballard, C, Holmes, C, McKeith, I, Neill, D, O'Brien, J, Cairns, N, Lantos, P, Perry, E, Ince, P, Perry, R (1999). Psychiatric morbidity in dementia with Lewy bodies: a prospective clinical and neuropathological comparative study with Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 1039–1045.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ballmaier, M, Toga, AW, Blanton, RE, Sowell, ER, Lavretsky, H, Peterson, J, Pham, D, Kumar, A (2004). Anterior cingulate, gyrus rectus, and orbitofrontal abnormalities in elderly depressed patients: an MRI-based parcellation of the prefrontal cortex. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 99–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bartolini, M, Coccia, M, Luzzi, S, Provinciali, L, Ceravolo, MG (2005). Motivational symptoms of depression mask preclinical Alzheimer's disease in elderly subjects. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 19, 31–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beats, BC, Sahakian, BJ, Levy, R (1996). Cognitive performance in tests sensitive to frontal lobe dysfunction in the elderly depressed. Psychological Medicine 26, 591–603.Google Scholar
Biver, F, Goldman, S, Delvenne, V, Luxen, A, De Maertelaer, V, Hubain, P, Mendlewicz, J, Lotstra, F (1994). Frontal and parietal metabolic disturbances in unipolar major depression. Biological Psychiatry 36, 381–388.Google Scholar
Blakemore, SJ, Rees, G, Frith, CD (1998). How do we predict the consequences of our actions? A functional imaging study. Neuropsychologia 36, 521–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boone, K, Lesser, B, Miller, B, Wohl, M, Berman, N, Lee, A, Palmer, B (1995). Cognitive functioning in a geriatric depressed population: relationship of presence and severity of depression to neuropsychological scores. Neuropsychology 9, 390–398.Google Scholar
Broe, GA, Henderson, AS, Creasey, H, McCusker, E, Korten, AE, Jorm, AF, Longley, W, Anthony, JC (1990). A case-control study of Alzheimer's disease in Australia. Neurology 40, 1698–1707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butters, MA, Becker, JT, Nebes, RD, Zmuda, MD, Mulsant, BH, Pollock, BG, Reynolds, CF (2000). Changes in cognitive functioning following treatment of late-life depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 1949–1954.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butters, MA, Bhalla, RK, Mulsant, BH, Mazumdar, S, Houck, PR, Begley, AE, Dew, MA, Pollock, BG, Nebes, RD, Becker, JT, Reynolds, CF (2004). Executive functioning, illness course, and relapse/recurrence in continuation and maintenance treatment of late-life depression: is there a relationship? American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 12, 387–394.Google Scholar
Butters, MA, Salmon, DP, Butters, N (1994). Neuropsychological assessment of dementia. In Neuropsychological Assessment of Dementia and Depression in Older Adults: A Clinicians Guide (ed. Storandt, M and VandenBos, G. R.), pp. 33–59. American Psychological Association: Washington, DC.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, CS, MacDonald, AM, Botvinick, M, Ross, LL, Stenger, VA, Noll, D, Cohen, JD (2000). Parsing executive processes: strategic vs. evaluative functions of the anterior cingulate cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 17, 1944–1948.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaves, ML, Izquierdo, I (1992). Differential diagnosis between dementia and depression: a study of efficiency increment. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 85, 378–382.Google Scholar
Chen, P, Ganguli, M, Mulsant, BH, DeKosky, ST (1999). The temporal relationship between depressive symptoms and dementia: a community-based prospective study. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 261–266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coffey, CE, Figiel, GS, Djang, WT, Saunders, WB, Weiner, RD (1989). White matter hyperintensity on magnetic resonance imaging: clinical and neuroanatomic correlates in the depressed elderly. Journal of Neuropsychiatry 1, 135–144.Google ScholarPubMed
Copeland, JR, Beekman, AT, Braam, AW, Dewey, ME, Delespaul, P, Fuhrer, R, Hooijer, C, Lawlor, BA, Kivela, SL, Lobo, A, Magnusson, H, Mann, AH, Meller, I, Prince, MJ, Reischies, F, Roelands, M, Skoog, I, Turrina, C, deVries, MW, Wilson, KC (2004). Depression among older people in Europe: the EURODEP studies. World Psychiatry 3, 45–49.Google Scholar
Dagher, A, Owen, AM, Boecker, H, Brooks, DJ (1999). Mapping the network for planning: a correlational PET activation study with the Tower of London task. Brain 122, 1973–1987.Google Scholar
de Groot, JC, de Leeuw, FE, Oudkerk, M, Hofman, A, Jolles, J, Breteler, MM (2000). Cerebral white matter lesions and depressive symptoms in elderly adults. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 1071–1076.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devinsky, O, Morrell, MJ, Vogt, BA (1995). Contributions of anterior cingulate cortex to behaviour. Brain 118, 279–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dierckx, E, Engelborghs, S, De Raedt, R, De Deyn, PP, Ponjaert-Kristoffersen, I (2007). Differentiation between mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's disease and depression by means of cued recall. Psychological Medicine 37, 747–755.Google Scholar
Dilling, H, Mombour, W, Schmidt, MH (1991). International Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders, chapter V. Huber: Bern, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Drevets, WC, Bogers, W, Raichle, ME (2002). Functional anatomical correlates of antidepressant drug treatment assessed using PET measures of regional glucose metabolism. European Neuropsychopharmacology 12, 527–544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duff, K, McCaffrey, RJ, Solomon, GS (2002). The Pocket Smell Test: successfully discriminating probable Alzheimer's dementia from vascular dementia and major depression. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 14, 197–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliott, R, Baker, SC, Rogers, RD, O'Leary, DA, Paykel, ES, Frith, CD, Dolan, RJ, Sahakian, BJ (1997). Prefrontal dysfunction in depressed patients performing a complex planning task: a study using positron emission tomography. Psychological Medicine 27, 931–942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliott, R, Rubinsztein, JS, Sahakian, BJ, Dolan, RJ (2002). The neural basis of mood-congruent processing biases in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 597–604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faustman, WO, Moses, JA, Csernansky, JG (1990). Limitations of the Mini-Mental State Examination in predicting neuropsychological functioning in a psychiatric sample. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 81, 126–131.Google Scholar
Feil, D, Razani, J, Boone, K, Lesser, I (2003). Apathy and cognitive performance in older adults with depression. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 18, 479–488.Google Scholar
Figiel, GS, Krishnan, KR, Doraiswamy, PM, Rao, VP, Nemeroff, CB, Boyko, OB (1991). Subcortical hyperintensities on brain magnetic resonance imaging: a comparison between late-age onset and early onset elderly depressed subjects. Neurobiology of Aging 26, 245–247.Google Scholar
Folstein, M, Folstein, S, Fanjiang, G (2001). Mini-Mental State Examination: Clinical Guide and User's Guide. Psychological Assessment Resources: Lutz, FL.Google Scholar
Folstein, S, Abbott, MH, Chase, GA, Jensen, BA, Folstein, MF (1983). The association of affective disorder with Huntington's disease in a case series and in families. Psychological Medicine 13, 537–542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frodl, T, Meisenzahl, EM, Zetzsche, T, Hohne, T, Banac, S, Schorr, C, Jager, M, Leinsinger, G, Bottlender, R, Reiser, M, Moller, HJ (2004). Hippocampal and amygdala changes in patients with major depressive disorder and healthy controls during a 1-year follow-up. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65, 492–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallo, JJ, Lebowitz, BD (1999). The epidemiology of common late-life mental disorders in the community: themes for the new century. Psychiatric Services 50, 1158–1166.Google Scholar
Ganguli, M, Dodge, HH, Shen, C, DeKosky, ST (2004). Mild cognitive impairment, amnestic type: an epidemiologic study. Neurology 63, 115–121.Google Scholar
George, MS, Ketter, TA, Parekh, PI, Rosinsky, N, Ring, HA, Pazzaglia, PJ, Marangell, LB, Callahan, AM, Post, RM (1997). Blunted left cingulate activation in mood disorder subjects during a response interference task (the Stroop). Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 9, 55–63.Google ScholarPubMed
Gilley, DW, Wilson, RS, Bienias, JL, Bennett, DA, Evans, DA (2004). Predictors of depressive symptoms in persons with Alzheimer's disease. Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 59, 75–83.Google Scholar
Goethals, I, Audenaert, K, Jacobs, F, Van de Wiele, C, Ham, H, Pyck, H, Vandierendonck, A, Van Heeringen, C, Dierckx, R (2005). Blunted prefrontal perfusion in depressed patients performing the Tower of London task. Psychiatry Research 139, 31–40.Google Scholar
Graciani, A, Banegas, JR, Guallar-Castillon, P, Dominguez-Rojas, V, Rodriguez-Artalejo, F (2006). Cognitive assessment of the non-demented elderly community dwellers in Spain. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 21, 104–112.Google Scholar
Green, RC, Cupples, LA, Kurz, A, Auerbach, S, Go, R, Sadovnick, D, Duara, R, Kukull, WA, Chui, H, Edeki, T, Griffith, PA, Friedland, RP, Bachman, D, Farrer, L (2003). Depression as a risk factor for Alzheimer disease: the MIRAGE study. Archives of Neurology 60, 753–759.Google Scholar
Hastings, RS, Parsey, RV, Oquendo, MA, Arango, V, Mann, JJ (2004). Volumetric analysis of the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus in major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 952–959.Google Scholar
Hickie, I, Naismith, S, Ward, PB, Turner, K, Scott, E, Mitchell, P, Wilhelm, K, Parker, G (2005). Reduced hippocampal volumes and memory loss in patients with early- and late-onset depression. British Journal of Psychiatry 186, 197–202.Google Scholar
Hickie, I, Scott, E, Mitchell, P, Wilhelm, K, Austin, MP, Bennett, B (1995). Subcortical hyperintensities on magnetic resonance imaging: clinical correlates and prognostic significance in patients with severe depression. Biological Psychiatry 37, 151–160.Google Scholar
Houston, WS, Bondi, MW (2005). Potentially Reversible Cognitive Symptoms in Older Adults. Guilford: New York.Google Scholar
Jorm, AF (2001). History of depression as a risk factor for dementia: an updated review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 35, 776–781.Google Scholar
Kalayam, B, Alexopoulos, GS (1999). Prefrontal dysfunction and treatment response in geriatric depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 713–718.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keller, MB, McCullough, JP, Klein, DN, Arnow, B, Dunner, DL, Gelenberg, AJ, Markowitz, JC, Nemeroff, CB, Russell, JM, Thase, ME, Trivedi, MH, Zajecka, J (2000). A comparison of nefazodone, the cognitive behavioral-analysis system of psychotherapy, and their combination for the treatment of chronic depression. New England Journal of Medicine 342, 1462–1470.Google Scholar
Kiosses, DN, Klimstra, S, Murphy, C, Alexopoulos, GS (2001). Executive dysfunction and disability in elderly patients with major depression. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 9, 269–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kivela, SL, Pahkala, K, Laippala, P (1988). Prevalence of depression in an elderly population in Finland. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 78, 401–413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klatka, LA, Louis, ED, Schiffer, RB (1996). Psychiatric features in diffuse Lewy body disease: a clinicopathologic study using Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease comparison groups. Neurology 47, 1148–1152.Google Scholar
Koenig, HG, Blazer, DG (1992). Epidemiology of geriatric affective disorders. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine 8, 235–251.Google Scholar
Koenig, HG, Blazer, DG (2004). Mood disorders. In Textbook of Geriatric Psychiatry (ed. Blazer, D. G., Steffens, D. C. and Busse, E. W.), p. 241. American Psychiatric Publishing: Arlington, VA.Google Scholar
Kramer-Ginsberg, E, Greenwald, BS, Krishnan, KRR, Christiansen, B, Hu, J, Ashtari, M, Patel, M, Pollack, S (1999). Neuropsychological functioning and MRI signal hyperintensities in geriatric depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 438–444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krishnan, KR, Taylor, WD, McQuoid, DR, MacFall, JR, Payne, ME, Provenzale, JM, Steffens, DC (2004). Clinical characteristics of magnetic resonance imaging-defined subcortical ischemic depression. Biological Psychiatry 55, 390–397.Google Scholar
Krishnan, KRR, Goli, Z, Ellinwood, EH, Franz, RD, Blazer, DG, Nemeroff, CB (1988). Leukoencephalopathy in patients diagnosed as major depressive. Biological Psychiatry 23, 519–522.Google Scholar
Krishnan, KRR, Hays, JC, Blazer, DG (1997). MRI-defined vascular depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 154, 497–501.Google ScholarPubMed
Kumar, A, Bilker, W, Jin, Z, Udupa, J, Gottleib, G (1999). Age of onset of depression and quantitative neuroanatomic measures: absence of specific correlates. Psychiatry Research 91, 101–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lai, T-J, Payne, M, Byrum, CE, Steffens, DC, Krishnan, KRR (2000). Reduction of orbital frontal cortex volume in geriatric depression. Biological Psychiatry 48, 971–975.Google Scholar
Lee, JS, Potter, GG, Wagner, HR, Welsh-Bohmer, KA, Steffens, DC (2007). Persistent mild cognitive impairment in geriatric depression. International Psychogeriatrics 19, 125–135.Google Scholar
Lee, Y, Shinkai, S (2005). Correlates of cognitive impairment and depressive symptoms among older adults in Korea and Japan. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 20, 576–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenze, EJ, Dew, MA, Mazumdar, S, Begley, AE, Cornes, C, Miller, MD, Imber, SD, Frank, E, Kupfer, DJ, Reynolds, CF (2002). Combined pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy as maintenance treatment for late-life depression: effects on social adjustment. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 466–468.Google Scholar
Levy, ML, Cummings, JL, Fairbanks, LA, Masterman, D, Miller, BL, Craig, AH, Paulsen, JS, Litvan, I (1998). Apathy is not depression. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 10, 314–319.Google Scholar
Levy, RM, Steffens, DC, McQuoid, DR, Provenzale, JM, MacFall, JR, Krishnan, KRR (2003). MRI lesion severity and mortality in geriatric depression. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 11, 678–682.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
London, ED, Simon, SL, Berman, SM, Mandelkern, MA, Lichtman, AM, Bramen, J, Shinn, AK, Miotto, K, Learn, J, Dong, Y, Matochik, JA, Kurian, V, Newton, T, Woods, R, Rawson, R, Ling, W (2004). Mood disturbances and regional cerebral metabolic abnormalities in recently abstinent methamphetamine abusers. Archives of General Psychiatry 61, 73–84.Google Scholar
Lopez, OL, Becker, JT, Sweet, RA, Klunk, W, Kaufer, DI, Saxton, J, Habeych, M, DeKosky, ST (2003 a). Psychiatric symptoms vary with the severity of dementia in probable Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 15, 346–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopez, OL, Jagust, WJ, DeKosky, ST, Becker, JT, Fitzpatrick, A, Dulberg, C, Breitner, J, Lyketsos, C, Jones, B, Kawas, C, Carlson, M, Kuller, LH (2003 b). Prevalence and classification of mild cognitive impairment in the Cardiovascular Health Study Cognition Study: Part 1. Archives of Neurology 60, 1385–1389.Google Scholar
Lupien, SJ, Nair, NP, Briere, S, Maheu, F, Tu, MT, Lemay, M, McEwen, BS, Meaney, MJ (1999). Increased cortisol levels and impaired cognition in human aging: implication for depression and dementia in later life. Reviews in Neurosciences 10, 117–139.Google Scholar
Lyketsos, CG, Lopez, O, Jones, B, Fitzpatrick, AL, Breitner, J, DeKosky, S (2002). Prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia and mild cognitive impairment: results from the cardiovascular health study. Journal of the American Medical Association 288, 1475–1483.Google Scholar
Lynch, TR, Cheavens, JS, Cukrowicz, KC, Thorp, SR, Bronner, L, Beyer, J (2007). Treatment of older adults with co-morbid personality disorder and depression: a dialectical behavior therapy approach. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 22, 131–143.Google Scholar
Lyness, SA, Zarow, C, Chui, HC (2003). Neuron loss in key cholinergic and aminergic nuclei in Alzheimer disease: a meta-analysis. Neurobiology of Aging 24, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacFall, JR, Payne, ME, Provenzale, JM, Krishnan, KRR (2001). Medial orbital frontal lesions in late-onset depression. Biological Psychiatry 49, 803–806.Google Scholar
MacQueen, GM, Campbell, S, McEwen, BS, Macdonald, K, Amano, S, Joffe, RT, Nahmias, C, Young, LT (2003). Course of illness, hippocampal function, and hippocampal volume in major depression. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100, 1387–1392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mast, BT, Yochim, B, MacNeill, SE, Lichtenberg, PA (2004). Risk factors for geriatric depression: the importance of executive functioning within the vascular depression hypothesis. Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 59, 1290–1294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehta, KM, Yaffe, K, Langa, KM, Sands, L, Whooley, MA, Covinsky, KE (2003). Additive effects of cognitive function and depressive symptoms on mortality in elderly community-living adults. Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 58, M461–M467.Google Scholar
Michael, N, Erfurth, A, Ohrmann, P, Arolt, V, Heindel, W, Pfleiderer, B (2003). Metabolic changes within the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex occurring with electroconvulsive therapy in patients with treatment resistant unipolar depression. Psychological Medicine 33, 1277–1284.Google Scholar
Mitchell, AJ, Dening, TR (1996). Depression-related cognitive impairment: possibilities for its pharmacological treatment. Journal of Affective Disorders 36, 79–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moscovitch, M, Rosenbaum, RS, Gilboa, A, Addis, DR, Westmacott, R, Grady, C, McAndrews, MP, Levine, B, Black, S, Winocur, G, Nadel, L (2005). Functional neuroanatomy of remote episodic, semantic and spatial memory: a unified account based on multiple trace theory. Journal of Anatomy 204, 35–66.Google Scholar
Murphy, CF, Alexopoulos, GS (2004). Longitudinal association of initiation/perseveration and severity of geriatric depression. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 12, 50–56.Google Scholar
Murphy, FC, Michael, A, Robbins, TW, Sahakian, BJ (2003). Neuropsychological impairment in patients with major depressive disorder: the effects of feedback on task performance. Psychological Medicine 33, 455–467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nebes, RD, Butters, MA, Mulsant, BH, Pollock, BG, Zmuda, MD, Houck, PR, Reynolds, CF (2000). Decreased working memory and processing speed mediate cognitive impairment in geriatric depression. Psychological Medicine 30, 679–691.Google Scholar
Nebes, RD, Pollock, BG, Houck, PR, Butters, MA, Mulsant, BH, Zmuda, MD, Reynolds, CF 3rd (2003). Persistence of cognitive impairment in geriatric patients following antidepressant treatment: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial with nortriptyline and paroxetine. Journal of Psychiatric Research 37, 99–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nemeth, G, Hegedus, K, Molnar, L (1988). Akinetic mutism associated with bicingular lesions: clinicopathological and functional anatomical correlates. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 237, 218–222.Google ScholarPubMed
O'Brien, JT, Lloyd, A, McKeith, I, Gholkar, A, Ferrier, N (2004). A longitudinal study of hippocampal volume, cortisol levels, and cognition in older depressed subjects. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 2081–2090.Google Scholar
Olin, JT, Katz, IR, Meyers, BS, Schneider, LS, Lebowitz, BD (2002 a). Provisional diagnostic criteria for depression of Alzheimer disease: rationale and background. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 10, 129–141.Google Scholar
Olin, JT, Schneider, LS, Katz, IR, Meyers, BS, Alexopoulos, GS, Breitner, JC, Bruce, ML, Caine, ED, Cummings, JL, Devanand, DP, Krishnan, KRR, Lyketsos, CG, Lyness, JM, Rabins, PV, Reynolds III, CF, Rovner, BW, Steffens, DC, Tariot, PN, Lebowitz, BD (2002 b). Provisional diagnostic criteria for depression of Alzheimer disease. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 10, 125–128.Google Scholar
Owen, AM, Herrod, NJ, Menon, DK, Clark, JC, Downey, SP, Carpenter, TA, Minhas, PS, Turkheimer, FE, Williams, EJ, Robbins, TW, Sahakian, BJ, Petrides, M, Pickard, JD (1999). Redefining the functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral prefrontal cortex. European Journal of Neuroscience 11, 567–574.Google Scholar
Palmer, BW, Boone, KB, Lesser, IM, Wohl, MA, Berman, N, Miller, BL (1996). Neuropsychological deficits among older depressed patients with predominantly psychological or vegetative symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders 41, 17–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Papka, M, Rubio, A, Schiffer, RB (1998). A review of Lewy body disease, an emerging concept of cortical dementia. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 10, 267–279.Google Scholar
Park, JH, Lee, SB, Lee, TJ, Lee, DY, Jhoo, JH, Youn, JC, Choo, IH, Choi, EA, Jeong, JW, Choe, JY, Woo, JI, Kim, KW (2007). Depression in vascular dementia is quantitatively and qualitatively different from depression in Alzheimer's disease. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 23, 67–73.Google Scholar
Patten, SB, Love, EJ (1994). Drug-induced depression. Incidence, avoidance and management. Drug Safety 10, 203–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paus, T, Petrides, M, Evans, AC, Meyer, E (1993). Role of the human anterior cingulate cortex in the control of oculomotor, manual, and speech responses: a positron emission tomography study. Journal of Neurophysiology 70, 453–469.Google Scholar
Phillips, ML, Drevets, WC, Rauch, SL, Lane, R (2003). Neurobiology of emotion perception. I: The neural basis of normal emotion perception. Biological Psychiatry 54, 504–514.Google Scholar
Potter, GG, Kittinger, JD, Wagner, HR, Steffens, DC, Krishnan, KR (2004). Prefrontal neuropsychological predictors of treatment remission in late-life depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 2266–2271.Google Scholar
Potter, GG, Steffens, DC (2007). Contribution of depression to cognitive impairment and dementia in older adults. The Neurologist 13, 105–117.Google Scholar
Rait, G, Fletcher, A, Smeeth, L, Brayne, C, Stirling, S, Nunes, M, Breeze, E, Ng, ES, Bulpitt, CJ, Jones, D, Tulloch, AJ (2005). Prevalence of cognitive impairment: results from the MRC trial of assessment and management of older people in the community. Age and Aging 34, 242–248.Google Scholar
Rapp, MA, Dahlman, K, Sano, M, Grossman, HT, Haroutunian, V, Gorman, JM (2005). Neuropsychological differences between late-onset and recurrent geriatric major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 691–698.Google Scholar
Reischies, FM, Neu, P (2000). Comorbidity of mild cognitive disorder and depression – a neuropsychological analysis. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 50, 186–193.Google Scholar
Robert, PH, Schuck, S, Dubois, B, Olie, JP, Lepine, JP, Gallarda, T, Goni, S, Troy, S (2003). Screening for Alzheimer's disease with the short cognitive evaluation battery. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 15, 92–98.Google Scholar
Rugg, MD, Fletcher, PC, Chua, PM, Dolan, RJ (1999). The role of the prefrontal cortex in recognition memory and memory for source: an fMRI study. Neuroimage 10, 520–529.Google Scholar
Salloway, S, Malloy, P, Kohn, R, Gillard, E, Duffy, J, Rogg, J, Tung, G, Richardson, E, Thomas, C, Westlake, R (1996). MRI and neuropsychological differences in early- and late-life-onset geriatric depression. Neurology 46, 1567–1574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shah, PJ, Ebmeier, KP, Glabus, MF, Godwin, GM (1998). Cortical grey matter reductions associated with treatment-resistant chronic unipolar depression. British Journal of Psychiatry 172, 527–532.Google Scholar
Sheline, YI, Barch, DM, Garcia, K, Gersing, K, Pieper, C, Welsh-Bohmer, K, Steffens, DC, Doraiswamy, PM (2006). Cognitive function in late life depression: relationships to depression severity, cerebrovascular risk factors and processing speed. Biological Psychiatry 60, 58–65.Google Scholar
Sheline, YI, Gado, MH, Kraemer, HC (2003). Untreated depression and hippocampal volume loss. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 1516–1518.Google Scholar
Sheline, YI, Sanghavi, M, Mintun, MA, Gado, MH (1999). Depression duration but not age predicts hippocampal volume loss in medically healthy women with recurrent major depression. Journal of Neuroscience 19, 5034–5043.Google Scholar
Sheline, YI, Wang, PW, Gado, MH, Csernansky, JG, Vannier, MW (1996). Hippocampal atrophy in recurrent major depression. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 93, 3908–3913.Google Scholar
Simpson, SW, Jackson, A, Baldwin, RC, Burns, A (1997). 1997 IPA/Bayer Research Awards in Psychogeriatrics. Subcortical hyperintensities in late-life depression: acute response to treatment and neuropsychological impairment. International Psychogeriatrics 9, 257–275.Google Scholar
Starkstein, SE, Petracca, G, Chemerinski, E, Kremer, J (2001). Syndromic validity of apathy in Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 872–877.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steffens, DC, Bosworth, HB, Provenzale, JM, MacFall, JR (2002). Subcortical white matter lesions and functional impairment in geriatric depression. Depression and Anxiety 15, 23–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steffens, DC, Conway, CR, Dombeck, CB, Wagner, HR, Tupler, LA, Weiner, RD (2001). Severity of subcortical gray matter hyperintensity predicts ECT response in geriatric depression. Journal of ECT 17, 45–49.Google Scholar
Steffens, DC, Krishnan, KRR (1998). Structural neuroimaging and mood disorders: recent findings, implications for classification, and future directions. Biological Psychiatry 43, 705–712.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steffens, DC, Pieper, CF, Bosworth, HB, MacFall, JR, Provenzale, JM, Payne, ME, Carroll, BJ, George, LK, Krishnan, KR (2005). Biological and social predictors of long-term geriatric depression outcome. International Psychogeriatrics 17, 41–56.Google Scholar
Steffens, DC, Plassman, BL, Helms, MJ, Welsh-Bohmer, KA, Saunders, AM, Breitner, JC (1997). A twin study of late-onset depression and apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 as risk factors for Alzheimer's disease. Biological Psychiatry 41, 851–856.Google Scholar
Steffens, DC, Skoog, I, Norton, MC, Hart, AD, Tschanz, JT, Plassman, BL, Wyse, BW, Welsh-Bohmer, KA, Breitner, JC (2000). Prevalence of depression and its treatment in an elderly population: the Cache County study. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 601–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sultzer, DL, Levin, HS, Mahler, ME, High, WM, Cummings, JL (1993). A comparison of psychiatric symptoms in vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 150, 1806–1812.Google Scholar
Tandberg, E, Larsen, JP, Aarsland, D, Cummings, JL (1996). The occurrence of depression in Parkinson's disease. A community-based study. Archives of Neurology 53, 175–179.Google Scholar
Taylor, WD, MacFall, JR, Payne, ME, McQuoid, DR, Provenzale, JM, Steffens, DC, Krishnan, KR (2004). Late-life depression and microstructural abnormalities in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex white matter. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 1293–1296.Google Scholar
Taylor, WD, Steffens, DC, Krishnan, KR (2006). Psychiatric disease in the twenty-first century: the case for subcortical ischemic depression. Biological Psychiatry 60, 1299–1303.Google Scholar
Tombaugh, TN, McIntyre, NJ (1992). The Mini-Mental State Examination: a comprehensive review. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 40, 922–935.Google Scholar
Veiel, HOF (1997). A preliminary profile of neuropsychological deficits associated with major depression. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 19, 587–603.Google Scholar
Weintraub, D, Stern, MB (2005). Psychiatric complications in Parkinson disease. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 13, 844–851.Google Scholar
Yanai, I, Fujikawa, T, Horiguchi, J, Yamawaki, S, Touhouda, Y (1998). The 3-year course and outcome of patients with major depression and silent cerebral infarction. Journal of Affective Disorders 47, 25–30.Google Scholar
Zakzanis, KK, Leach, L, Kaplan, E (1998). On the nature and pattern of neurocognitive function in major depressive disorder. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology 3, 111–119.Google Scholar
Zubenko, GS, Zubenko, WN, McPherson, S, Spoor, E, Marin, DB, Farlow, MR, Smith, GE, Geda, YE, Cummings, JL, Petersen, RC, Sunderland, T (2003). A collaborative study of the emergence and clinical features of the major depressive syndrome of Alzheimer's disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 857–866.Google Scholar