Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T00:19:51.522Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Adverse life events, psychiatric history, and biological predictors of postpartum depression in an ethnically diverse sample of postpartum women

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 September 2017

J. Guintivano ,
P. F. Sullivan ,
A. M. Stuebe ,
T. Penders ,
J. Thorp ,
D. R. Rubinow  and
S. Meltzer-Brody
J. Guintivano*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
P. F. Sullivan
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
A. M. Stuebe
Affiliation:
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of North Carolina, NC, USA Department of Maternal and Child Health, Gillings School of Global Public Health, NC, USA
T. Penders
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, East Carolina University, NC, USA
J. Thorp
Affiliation:
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of North Carolina, NC, USA
D. R. Rubinow
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
S. Meltzer-Brody
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
*
Author for correspondence: J. Guintivano, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Race, psychiatric history, and adverse life events have all been independently associated with postpartum depression (PPD). However, the role these play together in Black and Latina women remains inadequately studied. Therefore, we performed a case–control study of PPD, including comprehensive assessments of symptoms and biomarkers, while examining the effects of genetic ancestry.

Methods

We recruited our sample (549 cases, 968 controls) at 6 weeks postpartum from obstetrical clinics in North Carolina. PPD status was determined using the MINI-plus. Psychiatric history was extracted from medical records. Participants were administered self-report instruments to assess depression (Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale) and adverse life events. Levels of estradiol, progesterone, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, oxytocin, and allopregnanalone were assayed. Principal components from genotype data were used to estimate genetic ancestry and logistic regression was used to identify predictors of PPD.

Results

This population was racially diverse (68% Black, 13% Latina, 18% European). Genetic ancestry was not a predictor of PPD. Case status was predicted by a history of major depression (p = 4.01E-14), lifetime anxiety disorder diagnosis (p = 1.25E-34), and adverse life events (p = 6.06E-06). There were no significant differences between groups in any hormones or neurosteroids.

Conclusions

Psychiatric history and multiple exposures to adverse life events were significant predictors of PPD in a population of minority and low-income women. Genetic ancestry and hormone levels were not predictive of case status. Increased genetic vulnerability in conjunction with risk factors may predict the onset of PPD, whereas genetic ancestry does not appear predictive.

Keywords

Adverse life eventsgenetic ancestrypostpartum depressionpsychiatric history.
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 48 , Issue 7 , May 2018 , pp. 1190 - 1200
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alegria, M, Chatterji, P, Wells, K, Cao, Z, Chen, CN, Takeuchi, D, Jackson, J, Meng, XL (2008) Disparity in depression treatment among racial and ethnic minority populations in the United States. Psychiatric Services 59, 1264–1272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Assari, S, Lankarani, MM (2016) Stressful life events and risk of depression 25 years later: race and gender differences. Frontiers in Public Health 4, 49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brady, SS, Matthews, KA (2002) The influence of socioeconomic status and ethnicity on adolescents’ exposure to stressful life events. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 27, 575–583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Britton, JR (2007) Postpartum anxiety and breast feeding. Journal of Reproductive Medicine 52, 689–695.Google ScholarPubMed
Brockington, IF, Fraser, C, Wilson, D (2006) The postpartum bonding questionnaire: a validation. Archives of Women's Mental Health 9, 233–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulik-Sullivan, B, Finucane, HK, Anttila, V, Gusev, A, Day, FR, Loh, PR, Reprogen, C, Psychiatric Genomics Consortium, Genetic Consortium for Anorexia Nervosa of the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium, Duncan, L, Perry, JR, Patterson, N, Robinson, EB, Daly, MJ, Price, AL, Neale, BM (2015) An atlas of genetic correlations across human diseases and traits. Nature Genetics 47, 1236–1241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christian, LM, Mitchell, AM, Gillespie, SL, Palettas, M (2016) Serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) across pregnancy and postpartum: associations with race, depressive symptoms, and low birth weight. Psychoneuroendocrinology 74, 69–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, LA, Gonzales, JJ, Gallo, JJ, Rost, KM, Meredith, LS, Rubenstein, LV, Wang, NY, Ford, DE (2003) The acceptability of treatment for depression among African-American, Hispanic, and white primary care patients. Medical Care 41, 479–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cox, EQ, Stuebe, A, Pearson, B, Grewen, K, Rubinow, D, Meltzer-Brody, S (2015) Oxytocin and HPA stress axis reactivity in postpartum women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 55, 164–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cox, JL, Holden, JM, Sagovsky, R (1987) Detection of postnatal depression. Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. British Journal of Psychiatry 150, 782–786.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cross-Disorder Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium, Lee, SH, Ripke, S, Neale, BM, Faraone, SV, Purcell, SM, Perlis, RH, Mowry, BJ, Thapar, A, Goddard, ME, Witte, JS, Absher, D, Agartz, I, Akil, H, Amin, F, Andreassen, OA, Anjorin, A, Anney, R, Anttila, V, Arking, DE, Asherson, P, Azevedo, MH, Backlund, L, Badner, JA, Bailey, AJ, Banaschewski, T, Barchas, JD, Barnes, MR, Barrett, TB, Bass, N, Battaglia, A, Bauer, M, Bayes, M, Bellivier, F, Bergen, SE, Berrettini, W, Betancur, C, Bettecken, T, Biederman, J, Binder, EB, Black, DW, Blackwood, DH, Bloss, CS, Boehnke, M, Boomsma, DI, Breen, G, Breuer, R, Bruggeman, R, Cormican, P, Buccola, NG, Buitelaar, JK, Bunney, WE, Buxbaum, JD, Byerley, WF, Byrne, EM, Caesar, S, Cahn, W, Cantor, RM, Casas, M, Chakravarti, A, Chambert, K, Choudhury, K, Cichon, S, Cloninger, CR, Collier, DA, Cook, EH, Coon, H, Cormand, B, Corvin, A, Coryell, WH, Craig, DW, Craig, IW, Crosbie, J, Cuccaro, ML, Curtis, D, Czamara, D, Datta, S, Dawson, G, Day, R, De Geus, EJ, Degenhardt, F, Djurovic, S, Donohoe, GJ, Doyle, AE, Duan, J, Dudbridge, F, Duketis, E, Ebstein, RP, Edenberg, HJ, Elia, J, Ennis, S, Etain, B, Fanous, A, Farmer, AE, Ferrier, IN, Flickinger, M, Fombonne, E, Foroud, T, Frank, J, Franke, B, Fraser, C, Freedman, R, Freimer, NB, Freitag, CM, Friedl, M, Frisen, L, Gallagher, L, Gejman, PV, Georgieva, L, Gershon, ES, Geschwind, DH, Giegling, I, Gill, M, Gordon, SD, Gordon-Smith, K, Green, EK, Greenwood, TA, Grice, DE, Gross, M, Grozeva, D, Guan, W, Gurling, H, De Haan, L, Haines, JL, Hakonarson, H, Hallmayer, J, Hamilton, SP, Hamshere, ML, Hansen, TF, Hartmann, AM, Hautzinger, M, Heath, AC, Henders, AK, Herms, S, Hickie, IB, Hipolito, M, Hoefels, S, Holmans, PA, Holsboer, F, Hoogendijk, WJ, Hottenga, JJ, Hultman, CM, Hus, V, Ingason, A, Ising, M, Jamain, S, Jones, EG, Jones, I, Jones, L, Tzeng, JY, Kahler, AK, Kahn, RS, Kandaswamy, R, Keller, MC, Kennedy, JL, Kenny, E, Kent, L, Kim, Y, Kirov, GK, Klauck, SM, Klei, L, Knowles, JA, Kohli, MA, Koller, DL, Konte, B, Korszun, A, Krabbendam, L, Krasucki, R, Kuntsi, J, Kwan, P, Landen, M, Langstrom, N, Lathrop, M, Lawrence, J, Lawson, WB, Leboyer, M, Ledbetter, DH, Lee, PH, Lencz, T, Lesch, KP, Levinson, DF, Lewis, CM, Li, J, Lichtenstein, P, Lieberman, JA, Lin, DY, Linszen, DH, Liu, C, Lohoff, FW, Loo, SK, Lord, C, Lowe, JK, Lucae, S, MacIntyre, DJ, Madden, PA, Maestrini, E, Magnusson, PK, Mahon, PB, Maier, W, Malhotra, AK, Mane, SM, Martin, CL, Martin, NG, Mattheisen, M, Matthews, K, Mattingsdal, M, McCarroll, SA, McGhee, KA, McGough, JJ, McGrath, PJ, McGuffin, P, McInnis, MG, McIntosh, A, McKinney, R, McLean, AW, McMahon, FJ, McMahon, WM, McQuillin, A, Medeiros, H, Medland, SE, Meier, S, Melle, I, Meng, F, Meyer, J, Middeldorp, CM, Middleton, L, Milanova, V, Miranda, A, Monaco, AP, Montgomery, GW, Moran, JL, Moreno-De-Luca, D, Morken, G, Morris, DW, Morrow, EM, Moskvina, V, Muglia, P, Muhleisen, TW, Muir, WJ, Muller-Myhsok, B, Murtha, M, Myers, RM, Myin-Germeys, I, Neale, MC, Nelson, SF, Nievergelt, CM, Nikolov, I, Nimgaonkar, V, Nolen, WA, Nothen, MM, Nurnberger, JI, Nwulia, EA, Nyholt, DR, O'Dushlaine, C, Oades, RD, Olincy, A, Oliveira, G, Olsen, L, Ophoff, RA, Osby, U, Owen, MJ, Palotie, A, Parr, JR, Paterson, AD, Pato, CN, Pato, MT, Penninx, BW, Pergadia, ML, Pericak-Vance, MA, Pickard, BS, Pimm, J, Piven, J, Posthuma, D, Potash, JB, Poustka, F, Propping, P, Puri, V, Quested, DJ, Quinn, EM, Ramos-Quiroga, JA, Rasmussen, HB, Raychaudhuri, S, Rehnstrom, K, Reif, A, Ribases, M, Rice, JP, Rietschel, M, Roeder, K, Roeyers, H, Rossin, L, Rothenberger, A, Rouleau, G, Ruderfer, D, Rujescu, D, Sanders, AR, Sanders, SJ, Santangelo, SL, Sergeant, JA, Schachar, R, Schalling, M, Schatzberg, AF, Scheftner, WA, Schellenberg, GD, Scherer, SW, Schork, NJ, Schulze, TG, Schumacher, J, Schwarz, M, Scolnick, E, Scott, LJ, Shi, J, Shilling, PD, Shyn, SI, Silverman, JM, Slager, SL, Smalley, SL, Smit, JH, Smith, EN, Sonuga-Barke, EJ, St Clair, D, State, M, Steffens, M, Steinhausen, HC, Strauss, JS, Strohmaier, J, Stroup, TS, Sutcliffe, JS, Szatmari, P, Szelinger, S, Thirumalai, S, Thompson, RC, Todorov, AA, Tozzi, F, Treutlein, J, Uhr, M, van den Oord, EJ, Van Grootheest, G, Van Os, J, Vicente, AM, Vieland, VJ, Vincent, JB, Visscher, PM, Walsh, CA, Wassink, TH, Watson, SJ, Weissman, MM, Werge, T, Wienker, TF, Wijsman, EM, Willemsen, G, Williams, N, Willsey, AJ, Witt, SH, Xu, W, Young, AH, Yu, TW, Zammit, S, Zandi, PP, Zhang, P, Zitman, FG, Zollner, S, Devlin, B, Kelsoe, JR, Sklar, P, Daly, MJ, O'Donovan, MC, Craddock, N, Sullivan, PF, Smoller, JW, Kendler, KS, Wray, NR; International Inflammatory Bowel Disease Genetics Consortium (2013) Genetic relationship between five psychiatric disorders estimated from genome-wide SNPs. Nature Genetics 45, 984–994.Google ScholarPubMed
Di Florio, A, Putnam, K, Altemus, M, Apter, G, Bergink, V, Bilszta, J, Brock, R, Buist, A, Deligiannidis, KM, Devouche, E, Epperson, CN, Guille, C, Kim, D, Lichtenstein, P, Magnusson, PK, Martinez, P, Munk-Olsen, T, Newport, J, Payne, J, Penninx, BW, O'HARA, M, Robertson-Blackmore, E, Roza, SJ, Sharkey, KM, Stuart, S, Tiemeier, H, Viktorin, A, Schmidt, PJ, Sullivan, PF, Stowe, ZN, Wisner, KL, Jones, I, Rubinow, DR, Meltzer-Brody, S (2017) The impact of education, country, race and ethnicity on the self-report of postpartum depression using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Psychological Medicine 47, 787–799.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flynn, HA, Davis, M, Marcus, SM, Cunningham, R, Blow, FC (2004) Rates of maternal depression in pediatric emergency department and relationship to child service utilization. General Hospital Psychiatry 26, 316–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fujimura, JH, Rajagopalan, R (2011) Different differences: the use of ‘genetic ancestry’ versus race in biomedical human genetic research. Social Studies of Science 41, 5–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaillard, A, Le Strat, Y, Mandelbrot, L, Keita, H, Dubertret, C (2014) Predictors of postpartum depression: prospective study of 264 women followed during pregnancy and postpartum. Psychiatry Research 215, 341–346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gao, X, Wang, J, Yao, H, Cai, Y, Cheng, R (2016) Serum BDNF concentration after delivery is associated with development of postpartum depression: a 3-month follow up study. Journal of Affective Disorders 200, 25–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gavin, NI, Gaynes, BN, Lohr, KN, Meltzer-Brody, S, Gartlehner, G, Swinson, T 2005. Perinatal depression: a systematic review of prevalence and incidence. Obstetrics and Gynecology 106, 1071–1083.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaynes, BN, Gavin, N, Meltzer-Brody, S, Lohr, KN, Swinson, T, Gartlehner, G, Brody, S, Miller, WC (2005) Perinatal depression: prevalence, screening accuracy, and screening outcomes. Evidence Reports/Technology Assessments 119, 1–8.Google Scholar
Geronimus, AT, Hicken, M, Keene, D, Bound, J (2006) ‘Weathering’ and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health 96, 826–833.Google ScholarPubMed
Gibson, J, Mckenzie-Mcharg, K, Shakespeare, J, Price, J, Gray, R (2009) A systematic review of studies validating the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in antepartum and postpartum women. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 119, 350–364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guintivano, J, Arad, M, Gould, TD, Payne, JL, Kaminsky, ZA (2014) Antenatal prediction of postpartum depression with blood DNA methylation biomarkers. Molecular Psychiatry 19, 560–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, LA, Kotch, JB, Browne, D, Rayens, MK (1996) Self-esteem as a mediator of the effects of stressors and social resources on depressive symptoms in postpartum mothers. Nursing Research 45, 231–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, BE, Martin, JA, Osterman, MJ, Curtin, SC, Matthews, TJ (2015) Births: final data for (2014). National Vital Statistics Reports 64, 1–64.Google ScholarPubMed
Heron, J, O'CONNOR, TG, Evans, J, Golding, J, Glover, V, Team, AS (2004) The course of anxiety and depression through pregnancy and the postpartum in a community sample. Journal of Affective Disorders 80, 65–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howard, LM, Molyneaux, E, Dennis, CL, Rochat, T, Stein, A, Milgrom, J (2014) Non-psychotic mental disorders in the perinatal period. Lancet 384, 1775–1788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
International Hapmap Consortium (2005) A haplotype map of the human genome. Nature 437, 1299–1320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
International Schizophrenia Consortium, Purcell, SM, Wray, NR, Stone, JL, Visscher, PM, O'DONOVAN, MC, Sullivan, PF, Sklar, P (2009) Common polygenic variation contributes to risk of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Nature 460, 748–752.Google ScholarPubMed
Joubert, BR, North, KE, Wang, Y, Mwapasa, V, Franceschini, N, Meshnick, SR, Lange, EM (2010) Comparison of genome-wide variation between Malawians and African ancestry HapMap populations. Journal of Human Genetics 55, 366–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Junge, C, Garthus-Niegel, S, Slinning, K, Polte, C, Simonsen, TB, Eberhard-Gran, M (2017) The impact of Perinatal depression on children's social-emotional development: a longitudinal study. Maternal and Child Health Journal 21, 607–615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, RC, Berglund, P, Demler, O, Jin, R, Koretz, D, Merikangas, KR, Rush, AJ, Walters, EE, Wang, PS, National Comorbidity Survey Replication (2003) The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA 289, 3095–3105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, RC, Chiu, WT, Demler, O, Merikangas, KR, Walters, EE (2005) Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 617–627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimmel, M, Clive, M, Gispen, F, Guintivano, J, Brown, T, Cox, O, Beckmann, MW, Kornhuber, J, Fasching, PA, Osborne, LM, Binder, E, Payne, JL, Kaminsky, Z (2016) Oxytocin receptor DNA methylation in postpartum depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 69, 150–160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhlman, KR, Geiss, EG, Vargas, I, Lopez-Duran, NL (2015) Differential associations between childhood trauma subtypes and adolescent HPA-axis functioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology 54, 103–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuo, WH, Wilson, TE, Holman, S, Fuentes-Afflick, E, O'Sullivan, MJ, Minkoff, H (2004) Depressive symptoms in the immediate postpartum period among Hispanic women in three U.S. cities. Journal of Immigrant Health 6, 145–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laskey, AL, Stump, TE, Perkins, SM, Zimet, GD, Sherman, SJ, Downs, SM (2012) Influence of race and socioeconomic status on the diagnosis of child abuse: a randomized study. Journal of Pediatrics 160, 1003–18e1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leserman, J (2005) Sexual abuse history: prevalence, health effects, mediators, and psychological treatment. Psychosomatic Medicine 67, 906–915.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leserman, J, Drossman, DA, Li, Z (1995) The reliability and validity of a sexual and physical abuse history questionnaire in female patients with gastrointestinal disorders. Behavioral Medicine 21, 141–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leserman, J, Drossman, DA, Li, Z, Toomey, TC, Nachman, G, Glogau, L (1996) Sexual and physical abuse history in gastroenterology practice: how types of abuse impact health status. Psychosomatic Medicine 58, 4–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, H, Glusman, G, Hu, H, Shankaracharya, , Caballero, J, Hubley, R, Witherspoon, D, Guthery, SL, Mauldin, DE, Jorde, LB, Hood, L, Roach, JC, Huff, CD (2014) Relationship estimation from whole-genome sequence data. PLoS Genetics 10, e1004144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindahl, V, Pearson, JL, Colpe, L (2005) Prevalence of suicidality during pregnancy and the postpartum. Archives of Women's Mental Health 8, 77–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, CH, Tronick, E (2013) Rates and predictors of postpartum depression by race and ethnicity: results from the 2004 to 2007 New York City PRAMS survey (Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System). Maternal and Child Health Journal 17, 1599–1610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, CH, Tronick, E (2014) Prevalence and predictors of maternal postpartum depressed mood and anhedonia by race and ethnicity. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences 23, 201–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucero, NB, Beckstrand, RL, Callister, LC, Sanchez Birkhead, AC (2012) Prevalence of postpartum depression among Hispanic immigrant women. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners 24, 726–734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marmorstein, NR, Malone, SM, Iacono, WG (2004) Psychiatric disorders among offspring of depressed mothers: associations with paternal psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 1588–1594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meltzer-Brody, S, Leserman, J, Zolnoun, D, Steege, J, Green, E, Teich, A (2007) Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in women with chronic pelvic pain. Obstetrics and Gynecology 109, 902–908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mersha, TB, Abebe, T (2015) Self-reported race/ethnicity in the age of genomic research: its potential impact on understanding health disparities. Human Genomics 9, 1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myers, HF, Wyatt, GE, Ullman, JB, Loeb, TB, Chin, D, Prause, N, Zhang, M, Williams, JK, Slavich, GM, Liu, H (2015) Cumulative burden of lifetime adversities: trauma and mental health in low-SES African Americans and Latino/as. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy 7, 243–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norhayati, MN, Hazlina, NH, Asrenee, AR, Emilin, WM (2015) Magnitude and risk factors for postpartum symptoms: a literature review. Journal of Affective Disorders 175, 34–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Hara, MW, Mccabe, JE (2013) Postpartum depression: current status and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 9, 379–407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Hara, MW, Swain, A (1996) Rates and risk of postpartum depression – a meta-analysis. International Review of Psychiatry 8, 37–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okun, ML, Luther, J, Prather, AA, Perel, JM, Wisniewski, S, Wisner, KL (2011) Changes in sleep quality, but not hormones predict time to postpartum depression recurrence. Journal of Affective Disorders 130, 378–384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Otsubo, T, Tanaka, K, Koda, R, Shinoda, J, Sano, N, Tanaka, S, Aoyama, H, Mimura, M, Kamijima, K (2005) Reliability and validity of Japanese version of the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 59, 517–526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, N, Price, AL, Reich, D (2006) Population structure and eigenanalysis. PLoS Genetics 2, e190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Postpartum Depression: Action Towards Causes and Treatment Consortium (2015) Heterogeneity of postpartum depression: a latent class analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 2, 59–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, AL, Patterson, NJ, Plenge, RM, Weinblatt, ME, Shadick, NA, Reich, D (2006) Principal components analysis corrects for stratification in genome-wide association studies. Nature Genetics 38, 904–909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Qobadi, M, Collier, C, Zhang, L (2016) The effect of stressful life events on postpartum depression: findings from the 2009–2011 Mississippi pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system. Maternal and Child Health Journal 20, 164–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raj, A, Stephens, M, Pritchard, JK (2014) fastSTRUCTURE: variational inference of population structure in large SNP data sets. Genetics 197, 573–589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, AL, Gilman, SE, Breslau, J, Breslau, N, Koenen, KC (2011) Race/ethnic differences in exposure to traumatic events, development of post-traumatic stress disorder, and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States. Psychological Medicine 41, 71–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romeo, E, Strohle, A, Spalletta, G, Di Michele, F, Hermann, B, Holsboer, F, Pasini, A, Rupprecht, R (1998) Effects of antidepressant treatment on neuroactive steroids in major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 155, 910–913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiller, CE, Johnson, SL, Abate, AC, Rubinow, DR, Schmidt, PJ (2016) Reproductive steroid regulation of mood and behavior. Comprehensive Physiology 6, 1135–1160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shavers, VL (2007) Measurement of socioeconomic status in health disparities research. Journal of the National Medical Association 99, 1013–1023.Google ScholarPubMed
Sheehan, DV, Lecrubier, Y, Sheehan, KH, Amorim, P, Janavs, J, Weiller, E, Hergueta, T, Baker, R, Dunbar, GC (1998) The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 59(Suppl. 20), 22–33; quiz 34–57.Google ScholarPubMed
Siu, AL, Force Us, PST, Bibbins-Domingo, K, Grossman, DC, Baumann, LC, Davidson, KW, Ebell, M, Garcia, FA, Gillman, M, Herzstein, J, Kemper, AR, Krist, AH, Kurth, AE, Owens, DK, Phillips, WR, Phipps, MG, Pignone, MP (2016) Screening for depression in adults: US preventive services task force recommendation statement. JAMA 315, 380–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sorbo, MF, Grimstad, H, Bjorngaard, JH, Lukasse, M, Schei, B (2014) Adult physical, sexual, and emotional abuse and postpartum depression, a population based, prospective study of 53,065 women in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 14, 316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, A, Pearson, RM, Goodman, SH, Rapa, E, Rahman, A, Mccallum, M, Howard, LM, Pariante, CM (2014) Effects of perinatal mental disorders on the fetus and child. Lancet 384, 1800–1819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stockman, JK, Hayashi, H, Campbell, JC (2015) Intimate partner violence and its health impact on ethnic minority women [corrected]. Journal of Women's Health 24, 62–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strohle, A, Romeo, E, Hermann, B, Pasini, A, Spalletta, G, Di Michele, F, Holsboer, F, Rupprecht, R (1999) Concentrations of 3 alpha-reduced neuroactive steroids and their precursors in plasma of patients with major depression and after clinical recovery. Biological Psychiatry 45, 274–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strous, RD, Maayan, R, Weizman, A (2006) The relevance of neurosteroids to clinical psychiatry: from the laboratory to the bedside. European Neuropsychopharmacology 16, 155–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Studd, JW (2011) A guide to the treatment of depression in women by estrogens. Climacteric 14, 637–642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuebe, AM, Grewen, K, Meltzer-Brody, S (2013) Association between maternal mood and oxytocin response to breastfeeding. Journal of Women's Health 22, 352–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, PF (2010) The psychiatric GWAS consortium: big science comes to psychiatry. Neuron 68, 182–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suri, R, Stowe, ZN, Cohen, LS, Newport, DJ, Burt, VK, Aquino-Elias, AR, Knight, BT, Mintz, J, Altshuler, LL (2017) Prospective longitudinal study of predictors of postpartum-onset depression in women with a history of major depressive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. doi:10.4088/JCP.15m10427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Treloar, SA, Martin, NG, Bucholz, KK, Madden, PA, Heath, AC (1999) Genetic influences on post-natal depressive symptoms: findings from an Australian twin sample. Psychological Medicine 29, 645–654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uzunova, V, Sheline, Y, Davis, JM, Rasmusson, A, Uzunov, DP, Costa, E, Guidotti, A (1998) Increase in the cerebrospinal fluid content of neurosteroids in patients with unipolar major depression who are receiving fluoxetine or fluvoxamine. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95, 3239–3244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Viktorin, A, Meltzer-Brody, S, Kuja-Halkola, R, Sullivan, PF, Landen, M, Lichtenstein, P, Magnusson, PK (2016) Heritability of perinatal depression and genetic overlap with nonperinatal depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 173, 158–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, KS, Liu, XF, Aragam, N (2010) A genome-wide meta-analysis identifies novel loci associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research 124, 192–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wisner, KL, Moses-Kolko, EL, Sit, DK (2010) Postpartum depression: a disorder in search of a definition. Archives of Women's Mental Health 13, 37–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wisner, KL, Parry, BL, Piontek, CM (2002) Clinical practice. Postpartum depression. New England Journal of Medicine 347, 194–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yonkers, KA, Ramin, SM, Rush, AJ, Navarrete, CA, Carmody, T, March, D, Heartwell, SF, Leveno, KJ (2001) Onset and persistence of postpartum depression in an inner-city maternal health clinic system. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 1856–1863.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zayas, LH, Cunningham, M, Mckee, MD, Jankowski, KR (2002) Depression and negative life events among pregnant African-American and Hispanic women. Women's Health Issues 12, 16–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zayas, LH, Jankowski, KRB, Mckee, DM (2003) Prenatal and postpartum depression among low-income Dominican and Puerto Rican Women. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 25, 370–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Guintivano et al supplementary material

Guintivano et al supplementary material 1

Download Guintivano et al supplementary material(File)
File 54.7 KB