Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-17T15:03:08.421Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

How to Construct a Falsifiable Theory in Which the Universe Came Into Being Several Thousand Years Ago

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2022

Frank J Tipler
Frank J Tipler*
Affiliation:
Tulane University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

As everyone knows, in almost all modern cosmological models the origin of the Universe is placed between 10 and 20 billion years ago (van den Bergh 1984). The only exception I am aware of is the steady state theory, which has recently been given new life by the inflationary universe model (see Gott 1982, and Schramm's conference presentation), and which requires the universe to be infinitely old. No modern cosmological theory holds the Universe's age to be a mere 6,000 years, the traditional value in the West for centuries (Ussher 1660; Whiston 1696, 1717; Haber 1959). It is universally thought that radioactive dating and astronomical observation have definitely ruled out such a short age for the Universe. It is universally thought that it is impossible to construct a falsifiable theory which is consistent with the thousands of observations indicating an age of billions of years, but which holds that the Universe is only a few thousand years old.

Type
Part XXII. Invited Paper: Philosophy of Physics
Information
PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association , Volume 1984 , Issue 2: Volume Two: Symposia and Invited Papers 1984 , 1984 , pp. 872 - 902
Copyright
Copyright © 1985 by the Philosophy of Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

1

I am grateful to J.D. Barrow, S.G. Brush, M. Dupre, D. Eardley, W. Israel, A. Levine, D. Mohr, D.N. Page, D. Schramm, B.J. Sargent and J. Silk for helpful discussions. I am grateful to Philip Kitcher and all the other members of the PSA for giving me the opportunity to talk about and publish this wacky theory. Most of all, I am indebted to Rev. Andrew Osiander (1543) (See Armitage 1951, p. 108 and Kuhn 1957, p. 187) for the paper's Introduction. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under grants PHY-78-26562 and PHY-84-09672.

References

Alder, H.L and Roessler, E.B (1968). Introduotion to Probability and Statistics. San Francisco: Freeman.Google Scholar
Armitage, A (1951). The World of Copernicus. New York: New American Library.Google Scholar
Bardeen, J.M (1981). “Black Holes Do Evaporate Thermally.” Physical Review Letters 46: 382-385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrow, J.D and Matzner, R.A (1977). “The Homogeneity and Isotropy of the Universe.” Monthly Notices of the Roval Astronomical Society 181: 719-728.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrow, J.D (1978). “Quiescent Cosmology.” Nature 272: 211-215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrow, J.D and Tipler, F.J (1978). “Eternity is Unstable.” Nature 276: 453-159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrow, J.D and Turner, M.S (1981). “Inflation in the Universe.” Nature 292: 35-38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrow, J.D and Tipler, F.J (1985). The Anthropio Cosmological Principle. Oxford: Oxford University Press:.Google Scholar
Bell, J.S (1982). “Quantum Mechanics for Cosmologists.” In Quantum Gravity II. Edited by D.W. Sciama, R. Penrose, and C. Isham, Oxford: Oxford University Press:. Pages 611-637.Google Scholar
Brush, S.G (1981). “Creation/Evolution: the Case Against Equal Time.” The Science Teacher 48: 29-33.Google Scholar
Brush, S.G (1982). “Finding the Age of the Earth by Physios or by Faith.” Journal of Geological Education 30: 34-58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buffington, A and Schindler, S.M (1981). “Recent Cosmic-Ray Antiproton Measurements and Astrophyaical Implications.” Astrophysical Journal 247: L105-L109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caldwell, J.A.R and Ostriker, J.P (1981). “The Mass Distribution Within Our Galaxy: A Three Component Model.” Astrophysical Journal 251: 61-87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, B.J (1975). “The Primordial Black Hole Spectrum.” Astrophvsical Journal 201: 1-19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, B.J (1976). “Some Cosmological Consequences of Primordial Black Hole Evaporation.” Astrophysical Journal 206: 8-25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, B.; Gibbons, G.W.; Lin, D.N.; and Perry, M.J (1976). “Black Hole Emission Process in the High Energy Limit.” Astronomy & Astrophysics 52: 427-438.Google Scholar
Chantler, M.P.; Craig, H.A.B.; McComb, T.J.L; Orford, K.J.; Turner, K.E.; and Walley, G.M (1982). “Primary Composition of Cosmic Rays Near 1017 ev.” Journal of Physics Section G: Nuclear Physics 8: L51-L55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choquet-Bruhat, Y and Geroch, R.P (1969). “Global Aspects of the Cauchy Problem in General Relativity.” Communications in Mathematical Physics 14: 329-335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, C.B and Hawking, S.H (1973). “Why Is the Universe Isotropic?” Astrophvsical Journal 180: 317-330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, P.C.W (1980). “Quantum Fields in Curved Space.” In General Relativity and Gravitation. Volume I. Edited by Alan Held. London: Plenum Press. Pages 255-286.Google Scholar
Descartes, R (1647). Prinoipes de la Phllosophie. Paris: Le Gras. (As reprinted in Oeuvres Philosophioues. Volume III. (ed.) by F. Alquie. Paris: Garnier-Freres, 1973.Google Scholar
DeWitt, B.S and Graham, N (1973). The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Everett, H (1957). “'Relative State’ Formulation of Quantum Mechanics.” Reviews of Modern Physics 29: 454-465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fichtel, C.E.; Hartman, R.C.; Kniffen, D.A.; Thompson, D.J.; Bignami, F.G.; Ogelman, H.; Ozel, M.E.; and Turner, G (1975). “High Energy Gamma Ray Results From the Second Small Astronomy Satellite.” Astrophysical Journal 198: 168-182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golden, R.L.; Horan, S.; Mauger, B.G.; Badhuri, G.D.; Lacy, J.L.; Stephens, S.A.; Daniel, R.R.; and Zipse, J.E (1979). “Evidence for the Existence of Cosmic-Ray Antiprotons.” Physical Review Letters 43: 1196-1199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gosse, P.H (1857). Omphalos: An Attempt to Unti,e the Knot. London: J. Van Voorst.Google Scholar
Gott, J.R. III (1982). “Creation of Open Universes from de Sitter Space.” Nature 295: 304-307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guth, A.H (1981). “Inflationary Universe: A Possible Solution to the Horizon and Flatness Problems.” Physical Review 23: 347-356.Google Scholar
Haber, F.C (1959). The Age of the World: Mosea to Darwin. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Hajicek, P and Israel, W (1980). “What, No Black Hole Evaporation?” Physics Letters 80A: 9-10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawking, S.W (1971). “Stable and Generic Properties in General Relativity.” General Relativity and Gravitation Journal 1: 393-400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawking, S.W and Ellis, G.F.R (1973). The Large-Scale Structure of Spacetime. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawking, S.W (1974). “Black Hole Explosions?” Nature 248: 30-31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawking, S.W (1975). “Particle Creation by Black. Holes.” Communications in Mathematical Physics 43: 199—220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawking, S.W (1976). “Breakdown of Predictability in Gravitational Collapse.” Physical Review D14: 2460-2473.Google Scholar
Hawking, S.W (1982). “The Unpredictability of Quantum Gravity.” Communications in Mathematical Physics 87: 395-415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hays, W.L and Winkler, R.L (1970). Statistics: Probability. Inference, and Decision. Volume I. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.Google Scholar
Jefferson, T (1779). “A Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom.” (As printed in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, (ed.) J.P. Boyd. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950. Pages 545-547.Google Scholar
Kiraly, P: Szabelski, J.; Wdwczyk, J.; and Wolfendale, A.M. (1981). “Antiprotons in the Cosmic Radiation.” Nature 293: 120-122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuhn, T.S (1957). The Copernioan Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Linsley, J and Watson, A.A (1974). “Isotropy of the Arrival Directions of Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays.” Nature 249: 816-817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsden, J.E and Tlpler, F.J (1980). “Maximal Hypersurfaces and Foliations of Constant Mean Curvature in General Relativity.” Physics Reports 66: 109-139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazenko, G.F.; Unruh, W.G.; and Wald, R.M (1985). “Does a Phase Transition in the Early Universe Produce the Conditions Needed for Inflation?” Physical Review D31: 273-282.Google Scholar
Meikle, W.P.S (1977). “Upper Limits for the Radio Pulse Emission from Exploding Black Holes.” Nature 26Q: 41-42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Misner, C.W (1969a). “Quantum Cosmology.” Physical Review 186: 1319-1328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Misner, C.W (1969b). “The Absolute Zero of Time.” Physical Review 186: 1328-1333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Misner, C.W (1969c). “Mixmaster Universe.” Physical Review Letters 22: 1071-1074.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Misner, C.W and Taub, A.H, (1969). “A Singularity Free Empty Universe.” Soviet Phvsics-JETP 28: 122-133.Google Scholar
Misner, C.W.; Thome, K.S.; and Wheeler, J.A (1973). Gravitation. San Francisco:: Freeman.Google Scholar
Osiander, A (1543). “Preface.” In De Revolutionlbua Orbium Coelestium Libri VI. by N. Copernicus. Nuremburg: Job. Fetreium.Google Scholar
Ostriker, J.P.; Peebles, P.J.E.; and Yahil, A (1974). “The Size and Mass of Galaxies, and the Mass of the Universe.” Astrophysical Journal 193: L1-L4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Overton, W.R (1982). “Opinion in the Case of Rev. Bill McLean vs. Arkansas Board of Education.” Academe 68(2): 27-36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Page, D.N and Hawking, S.W (1976). “Gamma Rays from Primordial Black Holes.” Astrophysical Journal 206: 1-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Page, D.N (1980). “Is Black Hole Evaporation Predictable?” Physical Review Letters 44: 301-304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Page, D.N (1982). “Quantum Gravity and Time Reversibility.” General Relativity and Gravitation Journal 14: 299-305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peebles, P.J.E (1984). “Nature and Significance of the Mass Distribution in the Universe.” In Proceedings of the Eleventh Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics. (Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 422.) Edited by D.S. Evans. New York: New York Academy of Sciences. Pages 118-125.Google Scholar
Penrose, R (1972). Techniques of Differential Topology in Relativity. (SIAM Regional Conference Series in Applied Mathematics, No. 7.) Philadelphia: Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penrose, R (1978). “Singularities of Spacetime.” In Theoretical Principles in Astrophysics and Relativity. Edited by N.R. Lebovitz, W.H. Reid, and P.O. Vandervoort. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pages 217-243.Google Scholar
Penrose, R (1979). “Singularities and Time Asymmetry.” In General Relativity. An Einstein Centenary Survey. Edited by S.W. Hawking and W. Israel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pages 531-638.Google Scholar
Phinney, S and Taylor, J.H (1979). “A Sensitive Search for Radio Pulses from Primordial Black Holes and Distant Supernovae.” Nature 227: 117-118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porter, N.A and Weekes, T.C (1978). “A Search for High Energy Gamma-Ray Bursts from Primordial Black Holes or Other Astronomical Objects.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Agronomical Society 183: 205-210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prigogine, I (1978). “Nobel Prize Lecture 1977: Time, Structure, and Fluctuations.” Science 201: 777-785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rees, J.M (1980). “The Inhomogeneity and Entropy of the Universe: Some Puzzles.” Physica Scriota 21: 614-618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, B (1949). “Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?” (As reprinted in Atheism: Collected Essays, 1943-1949. New York: Arno Press, 1972.Google Scholar
Schönfelder, V (1978). “Origin of the MeV Excess in the Energy Spectrum of Diffuse Cosmic Gamma Rays.”. Nature 274: 344-346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schönfelder, V.; Graml, F.; and Penningsfeld, F.-P (1980). “The Vertical Component of 1-20 MeV Gamma Rays at Balloon Altitudes.” Astrophysioal Journal 240: 350-362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, G.H (1979). Atheism: the Case Against God. Buffalo: Prometheus Books.Google Scholar
Stecker, F.W (1978). “Baryon Symmetric Big Bang Cosmology.” Nature 273: 493-497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strong, A.W.j Wolfendale, A.W.; and Horrall, D.M (1976). “Origin of the Diffuse Gamma Ray Background.” Monthly Notices of the Roval Astronomical Society 175: 23P-27P.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taub, A.H and Tabensky, R (1973). “Plane Symmetric Self-Gravitating Fluids with Pressure Equal to Energy Density.” Communications in Mathematical Physics 29: 61-77.Google Scholar
Tipler, F.J (1977). “Singularities in Conformally Flat Spacetimes.” Physics Letters 64A: 8-10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tipler, F.J (1979). “General Relativity, Thermodynamics, and the Poincare Cycle.” Nature 280: 203-205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tipler, F.J (1980). “General Relativity and the Eternal Return.” In Essays in General Relativity: A Festschrift for Abraham H. Taub. Edited by F.J. Tipler. New York: Academic Press. Pages 21-37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tipler, F.J.; Clarke, C.J.S.; and Ellis, G.F.R (1980). “Singularities and Horizons: A Review Article.” In General Relativity and Gravitation: One Hundred Years After the Birth of Albert Einstein, Volume II. Edited by Alan Held. London: Plenum Press. Pages 97-206.Google Scholar
Tipler, F.J.. (1983). “Black Holes and the Nature of Quantum Gravity.” General Relativity and Gravitation Journal 15: 1139-1147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toulmin, S and Goodfield, J (1965). The Discovery of Time. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Turner, M.S (1982). “Could PBHs Be the Source of the Cosmic Ray Antiprotons?” Nature 297: 379-381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unruh, H.G (1975). “Notes on Black Hole Evaporation.” Physical Review D14: 870-892.Google Scholar
Wald, R.M (1982). “Acceleration Radiation and the Generalized Second Law of Thermodynamics.” Physical Review 25: 942-958.Google Scholar
Ussher, J (1660). Chronologia Saora. Oxford: Davis and Forrest.Google Scholar
van den Bergh, S (1984). “The Age and Size of the Universe.” Quarterly Journal of the Roval Astronomical Society 25: 137-146.Google Scholar
Wald, R.M (1980). “Quantum Gravity and Time Reversibility.” Physical Review D21: 2742-2755.Google Scholar
Weinberg, S (1980). “Beyond the First Three Minutes.” Physical Scripta 21: 773-781.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheeler, J.A (1977). “Singularity and Unanimity.” General Relativity and Gravitation Journal 8: 713-715.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiston, W (1696). A Hew Theory of the Earth. London: Roberts.Google Scholar
Whiston, W (1717). Astronomical Principles of Religion. London: Senex and Taylor.Google Scholar
Wolfendale, A.W (1982). “Presidential Address: Cosmic Rays And Astronomy.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 23: 325-343.Google Scholar
Wolfendale, A.W (1983a). “The Origin of Cosmic Rays.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 24: 122-145.Google Scholar
Wolfendale, A.W (1983b). “Presidential Address: Gamma Ray Astronomy.” Quarterly Journal of the Roval Astronomical Society 24: 226-245.Google Scholar
York, J.W (1972). “The Role of Conformal 3-Geometry in the Dynamics of Gravitation.” Physical Review Letters 28: 1082-1085.CrossRefGoogle Scholar