Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-k2jvg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-09T23:05:07.681Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Brewing

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 December 2011

Anna M. MacLeod
Anna M. MacLeod
Affiliation:
25 Drummond Place, Edinburgh EH3 6PN
Get access

Extract

When the Royal Society of Edinburgh was founded, the art of beer brewing had already been practised for well ov,er five thousand years, initially in Mesopotamia, then in Egypt and, for the last two millennia, in Continental Europe and in Britain. The procedures used were —and still are —essentially simple. First, barley is malted by growing the grain to allow it to form an assortment of enzymes, some of which, particularly the proteinases and β-glucanases, gradually free the starch granules of the endosperm from their enclosing organic matrix. The enzyme-amylase is also synthesised during malting and, though it has a limited action on the starch in the intact grain, it assumes major importance later during mashing. As a result of the enzymic activity during malting, the endosperm becomes friable instead of tough and the germinated barley, now known as malt, is kiln-dried so that it can be safely stored.

Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Section B: Biological Sciences , Volume 84: Two Hundred Years of the Biological Sciences in Scotland , 1983 , pp. 37 - 64
Copyright
Copyright © Royal Society of Edinburgh 1983

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aitken, R. A., Bruce, A., Harris, J. O. and Seaton, J. C. 1967. Quantitative analysis of beer-bittering substances by thin-layer chromatography. J. Inst. Brew. 73, 528–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aspinall, G. C. and Greenwood, C. T. 1962. Aspects of the chemistry of cereal polysaccharides. J. Inst. Brew. 68, 167–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnard, A. 1888–1891. Noted Breweries of Great Britain and Ireland. London: J. Causton.Google Scholar
Baverstock, J. 1785. Hydrometrical Observations and Experiments in the Brewery. London: G. Robinson.Google Scholar
Beaven, E. S. 1947. Barley. Fifty Years of Observation and Experiment. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Bell, G. H. H. 1964. Proc. First Int. Barley Genetics Symposium 285–302. Wageningen: Centre for Agricultural Publications and Documentation.Google Scholar
Bird, W. H. 1955. A History of the Institute of Brewing. London: The Institute of Brewing.Google Scholar
Bishop, L. R. 1970. A system of continuous fermentation. J. Inst. Brew. 78, 172–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bremner, D. 1869. The Industries of Scotland. Edinburgh: A. & C. Black.Google Scholar
Briggs, D. E., Hough, J. S., Stevens, R. and Young, T. W. 1981. Malting and Brewing Science (2nd edn), Vol. 1. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Brown, H. T. 1916. Reminiscences of fifty years experience of the application of scientific method to the brewing industry. J. Inst. Brew. 22, 267–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, H. T. and Morris, G. H. 1890. Researches on the germination of some of the Gramineae. J. Chem. Soc. 57, 458–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Button, A. H. and Palmer, J. R. 1974. Production-scale brewing using high proportions of barley. J. Inst. Brew. 80, 206–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, I. and Brudzynski, A. 1966. Serological studies on brewing yeasts. J. Inst. Brew. 72, 556–560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleman, J. J. 1877. Constitution of malt liquors and their influence upon digestion and nutrition. Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasg. 11, 112–128.Google Scholar
Combrune, M. 1758. An Essay on Brewing with a View of Establishing the Principle of the Art. London: Privately printed.Google Scholar
Corran, H. S. 1975. A History of Brewing. Newton Abbot: David & Charles.Google Scholar
Coutts, J. M. 1961. British Patents 872391–872400.Google Scholar
Crum, W. 1855. Sketch of the life and labours of Dr Thomas Thomson. Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasg. 3, 250–264.Google Scholar
Day, T. C. 1880. Experiments on germinating barley. J. Chem. Soc. 37, 645–658.Google Scholar
Day, T. C. 1893. The non-assimilation of atmospheric nitrogen by germinating barley. Trans. Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 20, 29–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, T. C. 1894. Influence of light on the respiration of germinating barley and wheat. Trans. Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 20, 185–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, T. C. 1896. Germination of barley with restricted moisture. Trans. Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 20, 492–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donnachie, I. 1979. A History of the Brewing Industry in Scotland. Edinburgh: John Donald.Google Scholar
Duffus, J. H. 1971. The cell cycle in yeasts. J. Inst. Brew. 77, 500–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R. P. 1976. Use of high-amylose barley for the production of whisky malt. J. Inst. Brew. 82, 280–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleming, J. 1818–ca. 1850. Scrapbook. Scottish Brewing Archive. Heriot-Watt University.Google Scholar
Fleming, M., Manners, D. J. and Cooke, S. C. 1974. The estimation of β-glucan in barley. J. Inst. Brew. 80, 399–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fletcher, L. 1926. Development and metabolism of yeasts Part III. Lag phase and assorted phenomena. J. Inst. Brew. 32, 385–414.Google Scholar
Fletcher, L. and Manson, T. 1939. Longevity of yeast. J. Inst. Brew. 45, p. 96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Food Standards Committee 1977. Report No. 68. Beer. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Ford, J. S. 1893. Letter from Copenhagen to William Younger & Co., Ltd. Edinburgh. Scottish Brewing Archive, Heriot-Watt University.Google Scholar
Ford, J. S. 1942. Horace Brown Memorial Lecture: Fragments from a laboratory notebook. J. Inst. Brew. 48, 301–343.Google Scholar
Ford, J. S. and Guthrie, J. M. 1908. Contributions to the biochemistry of barley. J. Inst. Brew. 14, 61–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, J. S. and Tait, A. 1924. Notes on the valuation of hops for antiseptic properties. J. Inst. Brew. 30, 426–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, J. S. and Tait, A. 1932. Gravimetric estimation of the preservative value of hops. J. Inst. Brew. 38, 351–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greig, C. G. 1963. Limit dextrinase activity in malted barley. J. Inst. Brew. 69, 412–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grieve, J. 1784. An account of the method of making a wine called by the Tartars koumiss with observations on its use in medicine. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 1 Part 2, 178–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, O. T. 1979. Modern malting methods. The Brewer 377–379.Google Scholar
Guthrie, J. H. and Philip, G. C. 1933. Note on the cleaning of screw stoppers. J. Inst. Brew. 39, 537–538.Google Scholar
Hamilton, H. 1963. An Economic History of Scotland in the Eighteenth Century. Oxford: University Press.Google Scholar
Harris, J. O. 1967. Hop chemistry in relation to brewing. J. Inst. Brew. 73, 386–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, J. O. 1968. Filtration in brewing. J. Inst. Brew. 74, 500–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, J. O. 1969. Economics of brewing. J. Inst. Brew. 75, 243–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, J. O. 1975. Brewery design theory and practice. The Brewer 344–349.Google Scholar
Harris, J. O. 1980. Single-tank operation for fermentation and maturation. J. Inst. Brew. 86, 230–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, B. 1971. Drink and the Victorians. London: Faber & Faber.Google Scholar
Helin, T. and Slaughter, J. C. 1977. Minimum requirements for zinc and manganese in brewer's wort. J. Inst. Brew. 83, 17–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henderson, R. 1910. History of well-sinking in Edinburgh. J. Inst. Brew. 16, 490–497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hope, T. C., Coventry, A. and Thomson, T. 1806. Parliamentary Papers: Select Committee Report on the Relative Qualities of Malt from Barley and Scottish Bigg.Google Scholar
Hopkins, R. H. 1921. Hydrogen ions in beer and brewing. J. Inst. Brew. 27, 401–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopkins, R. H. 1930. Some recent advances in the chemistry of enzymes. J. Inst. Brew. 36, 189–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopkins, R. H. and Hastie, J. B. 1928. Note on a sample of fifty-year old bottled beer. J. Inst. Brew. 34, 403–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horne, J. 1914. The water-bearing strata of the City of Edinburgh. J. Inst. Brew. 20, 199–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keir, D. 1951. The Younger Centuries. Edinburgh: Privately printed.Google Scholar
King, W. G. and Dalrymple, W. A. 1931. The general working of a (beer) bonded warehouse. J. Inst. Brew. 37, 265–271.Google Scholar
Lawson, P. 1852. Vegetable Products of Scotland. Edinburgh: Privately printed.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, J. 1777. Flora Scotica. Vol. 2, p. 614.Google Scholar
Lister, J. 1874. A contribution to the germ theory of putrefaction and other fermentative changes and to a natural history of Torula. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 27, 313–344.Google Scholar
Lowe, J. 1857. On the development of the yeast plant. Trans. Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 5, 214–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macfadzean, R. W. 1898. Burns' Excise duties and emoluments. Burns Chron. 7, 53–66.Google Scholar
MacLeod, A. M. 1977. Beer. In Economic Microbiology, Vol. 1: Alcoholic Beverages, pp. 43–134, ed. Rose, A. H. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
MacLeod, A. M. 1978. Horace Brown Memorial Lecture: Rerum cognoscere causas. J. Inst. Brew. 84, 81–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacLeod, A. M. 1979. The Physiology of Malting. In Brewing Science, Vol. 1. pp. 145–232, ed. Pollock, J. R. A. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
MacLeod, A. M., Duffus, J. H. and Johnston, C. S. 1964. Development of hydrolytic enzymes in germinating grain. J. Inst. Brew. 70, 521–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacLeod, A. M., Johnston, C. S. and Duffus, J. H. 1964. Ultrastructure of caryopses of the Gramineae. J. Inst. Brew. 70, 303–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacLeod, A. M. and Miller, A. S. 1962. Effects of gibberellic acid on barley endosperm. J. Inst. Brew. 68, 322–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacLeod, A. M. and Palmer, G. H. 1966. The endosperm of barley in relation to modification of the endosperm. J. Inst. Brew. 72, 580–589.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manners, D. J. and Marshall, J. J. 1969. β-Glucanase systems of malted barley. J. Inst. Brew. 75, 550–561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manners, D. J. and Yellowlees, D. 1973. Limit dextrinase activity of certain higher plants and commercial malts. Inst. Brew. 79, 377–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathias, P. 1959. The Brewing Industry in England 1700–1830. Cambridge: University Press.Google Scholar
Maule, A. P. and Thomas, P. D. 1973. Strains of yeast lethal to brewery yeast. J. Inst. Brew. 76, 137–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meldrum, A. A. 1982. Letter to the Editor. The Brewer, p. 271.Google Scholar
Melvin, A. 1885–1888. Export Sales Ledger. Scottish Brewing Archive. Heriot-Watt University.Google Scholar
Melvin, A. 1868–1869. Delivery Book for Wednesdays and Saturdays. Scottish Brewing Archive, Heriot-Watt University.Google Scholar
Merrit, N. R. 1967. A new strain of barley with high amylose content. J. Inst. Brew. 73, 583–585.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neve, R. A. 1978. Hop breeding and growing. Brewers' Guard. April, 67–68.Google Scholar
O'Sullivan, H. D. Undated. Life and Work of C. O'Sullivan F.R.S. Guernsey: Privately printed.Google Scholar
Palmer, G. H. 1972. Morphology of starch granules in cereal grains and malt. J. lnst. Brew. 78, 326–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pasteur, L. 1860. Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoholique. Annls Chim. Phys. 58, 323–426.Google Scholar
Pasteur, L. 1879. Etudes sur la Bière. English translation by Faulkner, F. and Robb, D. C.. London: MacMillan.Google Scholar
Payen, A. and Persoz, J. 1833. Memoire sur la diastase, principaux produits de ses reactions et leur applications aus arts industriels. Annls Chim. Phys. 53, 73–92.Google Scholar
Payen, A. and Persoz, J. 1835. Mémoire sur l'amidon et suite de recherches sur la diastase. J. prakt. Chem. 4, 288–313.Google Scholar
Preece, I. A. 1964. Horace Brown Memorial Lecture: An original enquirer to the manner born. J. lnst. Brew. 70, 477–484.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preece, I. A., Aitken, R. A. and Potter, R. 1954. Some aspects of barley composition and malting behaviour. J. lnst. Brew. 60, 142–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preece, I. A. and Hoggan, J. 1956. Observations on the β-glucanase system and its development during malting. J. lnst. Brew. 62, 486–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preece, I. A. and Mackenzie, K. 1951. Fractionation of the barley gums. J. lnst. Brew. 57, 353–362.Google Scholar
Preece, I. A. and Shadaksharaswamy, , 1949. Joint action of α- and β-amylases. J. lnst. Brew. 53, 103–110, 298–306, 373–383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Priest, F. G. 1981. Classification and nomenclature of brewing bacteria. J. lnst. Brew. 87, 279–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rankin, C. 1922. Influences affecting the bitterness of beer. J. lnst. Brew. 28, 456–470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rankin, C. and Bell, J. R. 1928. The surface of yeast as a factor in fermentation. J. lnst. Brew. 34, 265–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richardson, 1793. Philosophic Principles of the Science of Brewing and Statistical Estimates of the Material for Brewing. Hull: Privately printed.Google Scholar
Roberts, W. H. 1837. The Scottish Ale Brewer and Practical Maltster. Edinburgh: H. & C. Black.Google Scholar
Shirreff, J. 1814. General View of Agriculture: Orkney Islands. Edinburgh: Stevenson.Google Scholar
Sigsworth, E. M. 1965. Science and the brewing industry 1850–1900. Econ. Hist. Rev. 17, 536–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slight, A. 1949. Selection of malting barley. J. lnst. Brew. 55, 223–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Somerville, R. 1805. General View of Agriculture: East Lothian. London: Rich & Phillips.Google Scholar
Stanfield, R. 1915. Economic production and use of steam. J. lnst. Brew. 21, 361–368.Google Scholar
Stewart, W. 1849. Practical Instructions for Brewing Porter and Ales according to the English and Scottish Methods. Bound together with Thomson's article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Edinburgh: A. & C. Black.Google Scholar
Stopes, H. 1885. Malt and Malting. London: F. W. Lyon.Google Scholar
Swann, T. 1837. Verläufige Mitteilung Getreffend Versuche über die Weingarung und Faulniss. Annls Phys. Chem. 41, 184–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tait, A. and Fletcher, L. 1922, 1923. Development and nutrition of yeast. Part I: J. lnst. Brew. 28, 597–621. Part II: J. lnst. Brew. 29, 509–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tebb, G. 1968. A survey of infestation in makings and breweries. J. lnst. Brew. 74, 207–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tennent, J. and , R. 1788. Rough Letter Copy Book. Scottish Brewing Archive. Heriot-Watt University.Google Scholar
Thomson, T. 1842. Brewing and distilling. Encyclopaedia Britannica VIIth edn, Vol. 5, pp. 230–258.Google Scholar
von Hofsten, N. 1960. Bog Myrtle and other Substitutes for Hops in Former Times. Acta Acadamia Regia Gustavi Adolphi.Google Scholar
Westergaard, E. 1908. On Brewing. Keith Lectures to the Royal Scottish Society of Arts. Edinburgh: F. and E. Murray.Google Scholar
Westergaard, E. 1915. Proteolytic enzymes in malt. J. lnst. Brew. 21, 344–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar