Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T05:44:07.018Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Open or Enclosed: Settlement Patterns and Hillfort Construction in Strathdon, Aberdeenshire, 1800 bcad 1000

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2013

Murray Cook*
Affiliation:
Rampart Scotland, 6a Gladstone Place, Stirling, FK8 2NN Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This article presents a synthetic précis of enclosed and unenclosed settlement in Aberdeenshire over an extended period of study encompassing the later prehistoric and early medieval periods (1800 bcad 1000) where the perceived boundary between prehistory and history is of limited significance. The results will then be placed in a wider Scottish context, with a brief discussion of the changing nature of enclosure within the study area.

A recent upsurge in research, development, and survey work has, in particular, drawn renewed attention to a discrete cluster of around 20 hillforts in the Strathdon area, which lie well beyond Cunliffe's Hillfort Dominated Zones. In general, the settlement record is predominantly unenclosed but, in the first half of the 1st millennium bc the Strathdon area appears to reflect wider UK trends: there are relatively few hillforts and they appear to be aimed at communal gatherings. Their direct use in conflict appears to have been rare and their ‘defences’ perhaps marked a neutral zone rather than fortification. A putative increase in the volume of agricultural surplus may have led to increased social competition and eventually conflict. After c. 500 bc a variety of local factors influence hillfort design and there is an increase in their number and variability, before the emergence of a single dominant form from Northern Fife to Inverness, and then an abandonment of enclosure until the early medieval period. The current evidence indicates that hillforts were abandoned before the Roman incursions, perhaps by several hundred years and, while they may have been re-occupied, there is as yet no evidence for refortification. In contrast during the early medieval period hillforts appear to have been more actively used in both settlement and conflict. They may relate to a period of expansion amongst local competing polities and the cessation of their construction in the 7th century ad may be connected with the emergence of larger regional power structures.

Résumé

Ouverts ou fermés: Modes d'occupation et construction de forteresses de sommet de colline à Strathdon, Aberdeenshire, 1800 Av. J.-C. à 1000 ap. J.-C., de Murray Cook

Cet article présente un résumé de synthése d'occupations ouvertes et fermées dans l'Aberdeenshire sur une période d’étude prolongée couvrant de la fin de la préhistoire au début du moyen-âge (1800 av. J.-C. à 1000 ap. J.-C) périodes pendant lesquelles la perception de la frontière entre préhistoire et histoire n'a qu'une signification limitée. Les résultats seront ensuite replacés dans un contexte écossais plus étendu avec une brève discussion de la nature changeante des enclos à l'intérieur de la zone étudiée.

Une récente impulsion dans les travaux de recherche, développement et prospection a, en particulier, attiré une attention renouvelée sur un groupe diffus d'environ 20 forteresses dans la zone de Strathdon qui se trouve bien au delà des Zones Dominées par les Forteresses de Cunliffe. En général, l'inventaire des occupations est pour l'essentiel non clos, mais, dans la première moitié du premier millénaire av. J.-C. la zone de Strathdon semble refléter les plus grandes tendances du Royaume-Uni: il y a relativement peu de forteresses de sommet de colline et elles semblent être destinées à des rassemblements communautaires. Leur utilisation directe dans des conflits semble avoir été rare et leurs ‘défenses’ marquaient peut-être une zone neutre plutôt que de fortifications. Une augmentation putative du volume des surplus agricoles peut avoir conduit à une compétition sociale accrue et éventuellement à un conflit. Après environ 500 av. J.-C. divers facteurs locaux influencent la conception des forteresses et elles augmentent en nombre et en diversité avant l’émergence d'une seule forme dominante de Northern Fife à Inverness, et ensuite un abandon des enclos jusqu'au début de la période médiévale. Les témoignages actuels indiquent que les forteresses furent abandonnées avant les incursions romaines, peut-être plusieurs centaines d'années avant et, bien qu'il soit possible qu'elles aient été réoccupées, il n'y a jusqu’à maintenant aucun témoignage de refortification. Par contraste, au début de la période médiévale, les forteresses semblent avoit connu un regain d'activité à la fois sous la forme d'occupation et de conflit. Ceci peut avoir un rapport avec une période d'expansion parmi les entités politiques locales en compétition et la fin de leur construction au VIIe siècle ap. J.-C. peut être liée à l’émergence de plus grandes structures régionales de pouvoir.

Zussamenfassung

Offen oder umschlossen: Siedlungsmuster und Wallanlagenkonstruktion in Strathdon, Aberdeenshire, 1800 bc bis ad 1000, von Murray Cook

Dieser Artikel präsentiert einen zusammenfassenden Abriss von eingefriedeten und offenen Siedlungen in Aberdeenshire über einen längeren Zeitraum, der jüngere vorgeschichtliche und frühmittelalterliche Perioden umfasst (1800 bc bis ad 1000), wobei die gedachte Grenze zwischen Vorgeschichte und Geschichte von geringer Bedeutung ist. Die Ergebnisse werden schließlich in einen größeren Zusammenhang innerhalb Schottlands gestellt, einschließlich einer kurzen Diskussion des Wandels des Charakters von Erdwerken und Einfriedungen im Untersuchungsgebiet.

Ein Aufschwung in Forschung, Entwicklung und Feldarbeit in jüngster Zeit hat die Aufmerksamkeit erneut auf ein gesondertes Cluster von etwa 20 Befestigungsanlagen im Raum Strathdon gelenkt, die weit außerhalb von Cunliffes ,,Hillfort Dominated Zones“ liegen. Grundsätzlich besteht das Siedlungsmuster überwiegend aus offenen Siedlungen, doch in der ersten Hälfte des 1. Jahrtausends v. Chr. scheint die Region Strathdon allgemeinere Trends in Großbritannien zu reflektieren: Es gibt relativ wenige Befestigungsanlagen, und diese scheinen auf kommunale Versammlungen ausgerichtet gewesen zu sein. Ihre unmittelbare Nutzung in gewaltsamen Konflikten scheint dagegen selten gewesen zu sein, und ihre ,,Verteidigungsanlagen“ markierten vielleicht eher eine neutrale Zone als eine tatsächliche Befestigung. Eine vermutete Zunahme in Agrarüberschüssen kann zu größerem sozialem Wettbewerb und schließlich auch zu Konflikten geführt haben. Etwa nach 500 v. Chr. wird die Gestaltung der Wallanlagen durch eine Vielfalt lokaler Faktoren beeinflusst und eine Zunahme in ihrer Zahl und Variabilität ist feststellbar, bevor ein dominanter Typ von Northern Fife bis Inverness entsteht und schließlich die Anlagen bis zum Frühmittelalter aufgelassen werden. Die gegenwärtige Datenlage spricht dafür, dass die Anlagen vor dem römischen Einbruch verlassen wurden, vielleicht mehrere hundert Jahre früher, und auch wenn sie vielleicht wieder genutzt wurden gibt es bislang keine Hinweise, dass sie auch wieder befestigt wurden. Im Gegensatz dazu scheinen die Wallanlagen im Frühmittelalter wieder intensiver genutzt worden zu sein, sowohl durch Besiedlung als auch in gewaltsamen Auseinandersetzungen. Dies kann mit einer Phase der Expansion von lokalen konkurrierenden Gemeinschaften in Verbindung stehen, während die Beendigung ihrer Nutzung im 7. Jahrhundert mit der Entstehung größerer regionaler Machtstrukturen verknüpft werden kann

Resumen

Abierto o cerrado: patrones de asentamiento y construcción del poblado fortificado de Strathdon, Aberdeenshire, 1800 bc a ad 1000por Murray Cook

Este artículo presenta una síntesis de los asentamientos cercados y no cercados en Aberdeenshire a lo largo de un amplio período de estudio que abarca los últimos períodos de la Prehistoria y la Alta Edad Media (1800 bc y ad 1000), donde los límites entre Prehistoria e Historia son de limitada significación. Los resultados se presentan en un contexto más amplio a escala de Escocia, con una breve discusión de la naturaleza cambiante de los recintos dentro del área de estudio.

Un incremento importante en la investigación, con el desarrollo y la realización de nuevos trabajos de síntesis han atraído una atención renovada sobre un discreto conjunto de 20 castros en el área de Strathdon, que se encuentra más allá de la zona dominada por el poblado fortificado de Cunliffe. En general, el patrón de asentamiento es predominantemente no cercado pero, en la primera mitad del primer milenio bc, el área de Strathdon parece reflejar las tendencias observadas en el resto de Reino Unido: existen relativamente pocos castros y parecen estar destinados a agrupaciones comunales. Su uso directo en los conflictos parece haber sido excepcional y sus defensas quizá marquen una zona neutral más que una fortificación. Un aparente aumento en el volumen del excedente agrícola podría haber provocado un incremento de la competencia social y, eventualmente, de los conflictos. Después de c. 500 bc, el diseño de los castros está influenciado por una variedad de factores locales y se produce un incremento tanto de su número como de su variabilidad, antes de la emergencia de un único modelo dominante desde el norte de Fife a Inverness, y el posterior abandono de los recintos hasta los inicios de época medieval. La evidencia actual refleja que los castros fueron abandonados antes de las incursiones romanas, tal vez por varios cientos de años y, si bien podrían haber sido reocupados, no hay ninguna evidencia de refortificación. En cambio durante el inicio de época medieval los castros parecen haber sido utilizados más intensamente tanto como asentamiento como en los conflictos. Estos podrían estar relacionados con un período de expansión entre competidores políticos locales, y el cese de su construcción en el siglo VII ad podría vincularse con la emergencia de estructuras regionales de poder de mayor entidad.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The Prehistoric Society 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alcock, L. 1981. Early historic fortifications in Scotland. In G. Guilbert (ed.), Hillfort Studies: essays for A. H. A Hogg, 150180. Leicester: Leicester University PressGoogle Scholar
Alcock, L. 1988. The activities of potentates in Celtic Britain, ad 500–800: a positivist approach. In S. Driscoll & M. Nieke (eds), Power and Politics in Early Medieval Britain and Ireland, 4046. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University PressGoogle Scholar
Alcock, L. 2003. Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests in Northern Britain ad 550–850. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of ScotlandGoogle Scholar
Alcock, L., Alcock, E., Driscoll, S. 1989. Reconnaissance excavations on early historic fortifications and other royal sites in Scotland, 1974–84, 3: Excavations at Dundurn, Strathearn, Perthshire. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 119, 189226CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alcock, L., Alcock, E. 1992. Reconnaissance excavations on Early Historic fortifications and other royal sites in Scotland, 1974–84; 5: A, Excavations & other fieldwork at Forteviot, Perthshire, 1981; B, Excavations at Urquhart Castle, Inverness-shire, 1983; C, Excavations at Dunnottar, Kincardineshire. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 122, 215287CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, D. 2000. Excavation of Neolithic pits, later prehistoric structures and a Roman temporary camp along the line of the A96 Kintore and Blackburn Bypass, Aberdeenshire. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 130, 1176CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, D. 2002. An oblong fort at Finavon, Angus: an example of the over-reliance of the appliance of science. In B. Ballin Smith & I. Banks (eds), In the Shadow of the Brochs, 4554. Stroud: TempusGoogle Scholar
Alexander, D., Ralston, I. 1999. Survey work on Turin Hill, Angus. Tayside & Fife Archaeological Journal 13, 3974Google Scholar
Alexander, D., Watkins, T. 1998. St Germains, Tranent, East Lothian: the excavation of Early Bronze Age remains and Iron Age enclosed and unenclosed settlements. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 128, 203254CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armit, I. 1990. Brochs and beyond in the Western Isles. In I. Armit (ed.), Beyond the Brochs, Changing Perspectives of the Atlantic Scottish Iron Age, 4170. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University PressGoogle Scholar
Armit, I. 1997. Celtic Scotland. London: BatsfordGoogle Scholar
Armit, I. 2005. Celtic Scotland (2nd edn). London: BatsfordGoogle Scholar
Armit, A. 2007. Hillforts at war: From Maiden Castle to Taniwaha Pā. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 73, 2639CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armit, I., Dunwell, A., Hunter, F. 2002. The hill at the Empire's edge; recent work on Traprain Law. Transactions of the East Lothian Antiquarian & Field Naturalists’ Society 25, 111Google Scholar
Armit, I., Ralston, I. 2003. The Iron Age. In K.J. Edwards & I. Ralston (eds), Scotland After the Ice Age: environment and archaeology, 8000 bc to ad 1000, 169195. Chichester: WileyGoogle Scholar
Armit, I., Schutling, R., Knusel, C.J., Shepherd, I. 2011. Death, decapitation and display? The Bronze Age and Iron Age human remains from the Sculpture's Cave, Covesea, north-east Scotland. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 77, 251278CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashmore, P. 1996. Neolithic and Bronze Age Scotland. London: BatsfordGoogle Scholar
Ashmore, P. 2001. Settlement in Scotland during the second millennium bc. In J. Brück (ed.), Bronze Age Landscapes, Tradition and Transformation, 18. Oxford: Oxbow BooksGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, D. 2007. Mither Tap, Bennachie, Aberdeenshire (Oyne parish), watching brief, radiocarbon dating. Discovery and Excavation in Scotland 8, 28Google Scholar
Bradley, R. 2005. The Moon and the Bonfire: an investigation of three stone circles in north-east Scotland. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of ScotlandCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R. 2007. The Prehistory of Britain and Ireland. Cambridge: Cambridge World ArchaeologyCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brück, J. 1999. What's in a settlement? Domestic practice and residential mobility in Early Bronze Age southern England. In J. Brück, & M. Goodman (eds), Making Places in the Prehistoric World: themes in settlement archaeology, 5275. London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Cameron, K., Rees, A., Dunwell, A., Anderson, S. 2007. Prehistoric pits, Bronze Age roundhouses. An Iron Age promontory enclosure, Early Historic cist burials and medieval enclosures along the route of the A92, Dundee to Arbroath. Tayside & Fife Archaeological Journal 13, 3974Google Scholar
Campbell, E. 2007. Continental and Mediterranean Imports to Atlantic Britain and Ireland, ad 400–800. York: Council for British Archaeology Research Report 157Google Scholar
Church, M. 2002. Carbonised plant macrofossils, 51–68 in K. Cameron, The excavation of Neolithic pits and Iron Age souterrains at Dubton Farm, Brechin, Angus. Tayside & Fife Archaeological Journal 8, 1976Google Scholar
Clarke, D. 2001. Defining and integrating sequences in site analysis: the evidence from hillforts and other sites. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 20(3), 293306CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, D., Blackwell, A., Goldberg, M. 2012. Early Medieval Scotland: individuals, communities and ideas. Edinburgh: National Museums ScotlandGoogle Scholar
Cook, M. J. 2010a. The hillforts of Strathdon. In Anon (ed.), A Lad o'Pairts: a day conference in honour of Ian Shepherd, to celebrate the wide contribution he made to Scottish Archaeology, 62–5, http://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/archaeology/projects/index.asp. Accessed 06/12/2012Google Scholar
Cook, M.J. 2010b. New light on oblong forts: excavations at Dunnideer, Aberdeenshire. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 140, 7983CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, M.J. 2011a. Maiden Castle, Aberdeenshire: choice and architecture in Pictland. Tayside & Fife Archaeological Journal 17, 2535Google Scholar
Cook, M.J. 2011b. New evidence for the activities of Pictish Potentates in Aberdeenshire: the hillforts of Strathdon. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 141, 207231CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, M.J. 2012. Altered earth: excavations at Hill of Barra, Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire. Tayside & Fife Archaeological Journal 18, 2740Google Scholar
Cook, M.forthcoming. Paradigms, assumptions, enclosure and violence: the hillforts of Strathdon. Journal of Conflict ArchaeologyGoogle Scholar
Cook, M.J., Connolly, D. 2010. Rampart Scotland Project 1: White Castle, Garvald, East Lothian: Season 1, available at http://www.rampartscotland.co.uk/pdf/DSR_Whitecastle_2010.pdf. Accessed 9/04/2012Google Scholar
Cook, M.J., Dunbar, L. 2008. Rituals, Roundhouses and Romans: excavations at Kintore, Aberdeenshire 2000–2006. Volume 1, Forest Road. Edinburgh: Scottish Trust for Archaeological ResearchGoogle Scholar
Cook, M.J., Dunbar, L., Heawood, R. forthcoming Rituals, Roundhouses and Romans: excavations at Kintore, Aberdeenshire 2000–2006. Volume 2, Other Sites. EdinburghGoogle Scholar
Cottam, M.B., Small, A. 1974. The distribution of settlement in southern Pictland. Medieval Archaeology 18, 4365CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowie, T.G., Shepherd, I. 2003. The Bronze Age. In Edwards & Ralston (eds) 2003, 151–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cressey, M., Anderson, S. 2011. A Later Prehistoric Settlement and Metalworking Site at Seafield West, near Inverness, Highland. Scottish Archaeology Internet Report 47, www.sair.org.uk. Accessed 06/12/2012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crone, A. 2000. The History of a Scottish Lowland Crannog: excavations at Buiston, Ayrshire 1989–90. Edinburgh: STARGoogle Scholar
Crone, A., Campbell, E. 2005. A Crannog of the 1st Millennium ad: excavations by Jack Scott at Loch Glashan, Argyll, 1960. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of ScotlandGoogle Scholar
Cunliffe, B. 2005. Iron Age Communities in Britain (3rd edn). London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Davis, M. 2007. Dominated by unenclosed settlements? The Later Iron Age in eastern Scotland north of the Forth. In Haselgrove & Moore (eds) 2007, 266–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobbs, M. 1949. Ce: the Pictish name of a district in eastern Scotland. Scottish Gaelic Studies 6, 137138Google Scholar
Driscoll, S. 1991. The archaeology of state formation in Scotland. In B. Hanson & E. Slater (eds), Scottish Archaeology: new perceptions, 81111. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University PressGoogle Scholar
Driscoll, S. 1997. A Pictish settlement in north-east Fife: the Scottish Field School of Archaeology excavations at Easter Kinnear. Tayside & Fife Archaeological Journal 3, 74118Google Scholar
Driscoll, S. 2011. Pictish archaeology: persistent problems and structural solutions. In Driscoll et al. (eds) 2011, 245–80Google Scholar
Driscoll, S., Geddes, J., Hall, M. (eds) 2011. Pictish Progress: new studies on northern Britain in the early Middle Ages. Leiden: BrillCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunwell, A., Ralston, I. 2008. Archaeology and Early History of Angus. Stroud: TempusGoogle Scholar
Dunwell, A., Strachan, R. 2007. Excavations at Brown Caterthun and White Caterthun Hillforts, Angus, 1995–1997. Perth: Tayside & Fife Archaeological CommitteeGoogle Scholar
Edwards, K., Ralston, I. 1978. New dating and environmental evidence from Burghead fort, Moray. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 109, 202210CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, K.J., Ralston, I. (eds). 2003. Scotland After the Ice Age: environment and archaeology, 8000 bc to ad 1000. Chichester: WileyGoogle Scholar
Feachem, R. 1966. The hill-forts of northern Britain. In A. Rivet (ed.), The Iron Age in Northern Britain, 5987. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University PressGoogle Scholar
Finlayson, B., Coles, G., Dunwell, A., Ralston, I. 1999. The Angus and South Aberdeenshire Field School of the Department of Archaeology, University of Edinburgh-Research Design. Tayside & Fife Archaeological Journal 5, 2835Google Scholar
Foster, S. 1998. Before Alba: Pictish and Dal Riata power centres from the fifth to late ninth centuries ad. In S. Foster, A. Macinnes & R. Macinnes (eds), Scottish Power Centres from the Early Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century, 131. Glasgow: Cruithne PressGoogle Scholar
Foster, S. 2004. Picts, Gales and Scots: Early Historic Scotland. London: BatsfordGoogle Scholar
Fraser, J. 2005. The Roman Conquest of Scotland: the Battle of Mons Graupius ad 84. Stroud: TempusGoogle Scholar
Fraser, I., Halliday, S. 2011. The early medieval landscape of Donside, Aberdeenshire. In Driscoll et al. (eds) 2011, 307–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraser, J. 2009. Caledonia to Pictland: Scotland to ad 795. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frodsham, P., Hedley, I., Young, R. 2007. Putting the neighbours in their place? Displays of position and possession in northern Cheviot ‘hillfort’ design. In Haselgrove & Moore (eds) 2007, 251–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gentles, D. 1993. Vitrified forts. Current Archaeology 133, 1820Google Scholar
Glentworth, R. 1963. Soils. In Anon, The North-East of Scotland: a survey prepared for the Aberdeen meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1963, 3845. Aberdeen: Central PressGoogle Scholar
Greig, C. 1972. Cullykhan. Current Archaeology 8, 227231Google Scholar
Hall, M. 2007. Playtime in Pictland: the material culture of gaming in early medieval Scotland. Rosemarkie: Groam HouseGoogle Scholar
Halliday, S., Ralston, I. 2009. How many hillforts are there in Scotland? In G. Cooney, K. Becker, J. Coles, M. Ryan & S. Sievers (eds), Relics of Old Decency: Archaeological studies in later prehistory, 457469. Dublin: WordwellGoogle Scholar
Hanson, B., Maxwell, G. 1983. Rome's North-West Frontier: the Antonine Wall. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University PressGoogle Scholar
Harding, D.W. (ed.). 1976. Hillforts: later prehistoric earthworks in Britain and Ireland. London: Academic PressGoogle Scholar
Harding, D. (ed.). 1982. Later Prehistoric Settlement in South-east Scotland. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, Department of Archaeology Occasional Paper 8Google Scholar
Harding, D.W. 1984. The function and classification of brochs and duns. In Miket, R. & Burgess, C. (eds), Between and Beyond the Walls: essays son the prehistory and history of northern Britain in honour of George Jobey, 206220. Edinburgh: John DonaldGoogle Scholar
Harding, D. 2004. The Iron Age in Northern Britain: Celts and Romans, natives and invaders. London: RoutledgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harding, D.W. 2009. The Iron Age Round-House: later prehistoric building in Britain and beyond. Oxford: Oxford University PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haselgrove, C. (ed.). 2009. The Traprain Law Environs Project: fieldwork and excavations 2000–2004. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of ScotlandCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haselgrove, C., Hale, D. 2009. The evaluations at Bearford, Foster Law and East Linton. In Haselgrove (ed.) 2009, 99–116Google Scholar
Haselgrove, C., Moore, T. (eds). 2007. The Later Iron Age in Britain and Beyond. Oxford: Oxbow BooksGoogle Scholar
Haselgrove, C., Fitts, L., Carne, P. 2009. Excavations at Standingstone. In Haselgrove (ed.) 2009, 43–66Google Scholar
Haselgrove, C., Armit, I., Champion, T., Gwilt, A., Hill, J.D., Hunter, F., Woodward, A. 2001. Understanding the British Iron Age: an agenda for action. Salisbury: Iron Age Research Seminar & Prehistoric SocietyGoogle Scholar
Haselgrove, C., McCullagh, R.P.J. (eds). 2000. An Iron Age Coastal Community in East Lothian: the excavation of two later prehistoric enclosure complexes at Fishers Road, Port Seton, 1994–5. Edinburgh: Scottish Trust for Archaeological ResearchGoogle Scholar
Heald, A. 2001. Knobbed spearbutts of the British and Irish Iron Age: new examples and new thoughts. Antiquity 75, 689696CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heald, A. 2011. The interpretation of non-ferrous metalworking in Early Historic Scotland. In Driscoll et al. (eds) 2011, 221–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henderson, G., Henderson, I. 2004. The Art of the Picts: sculpture and metalwork in early medieval Scotland. London: Thames & HudsonGoogle Scholar
Hill, J.D. 1995. The Pre-Roman Iron Age in Britain and Ireland (ca 800 bc to ad 100): an overview. Journal of World Prehistory 9, 4798CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, P. 1982. Settlement and chronology. In Harding (ed.) 1982, 4–43Google Scholar
Hunter, F. 1997. Hoarding in Scotland. In A. Gwilt & C. Haselgrove (eds), Reconstructing Iron Age Societies, 108133. Oxford: Oxbow BooksGoogle Scholar
Hunter, F. 2006. New Light on Iron Age massive armlets. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 136, 135216CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunter, F. 2007a. Beyond the Edge of Empire: Caledonians, Picts and Romans. Inverness: Groam HouseGoogle Scholar
Hunter, F. 2007b. Artefact, regions, and identities in the northern British Iron Age. In Haselgrove & Moore (eds) 2007, 286–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, J. 1903. Place Names of Scotland (2nd edn). Edinburgh: David DouglasGoogle Scholar
Johnson, M. 2004. Aberdeen to Lochside Natural Gas Pipeline: Archaeological Excavations, Plot 1/1, CFA Report 947 unpublishedGoogle Scholar
Kendrick, J. 1995. Excavation of a Neolithic enclosure and an Iron Age settlement at Douglasmuir, Angus. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 125, 2967CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirk, W. 1958. The lower Ythan in prehistoric times. In J. Godsman, A history of the Burgh and Parish of Ellon, Aberdeenshire, 2635. Aberdeen: LindsayGoogle Scholar
LaMotta, V., Schiffer, M. 1999. Formation processes of house floor assemblages. In P.M. Allison (ed.), The Archaeology of Household Activities, 1929. London: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Lane, A., Campbell, E. 2000. Dunadd: an early Dalriadic capital. Oxford: Oxbow BooksGoogle Scholar
Lelong, O., MacGregor, G. (eds). 2007. The Lands of Ancient Lothian: interpreting the archaeology of the A1. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of ScotlandGoogle Scholar
Lewis, J., Leivers, M., Brown, L., Smith, A., Cramp, K., Mepham, L., Phillpotts, C. 2010. Landscape Evolution in the Middle Thames Valley: Heathrow Terminal 5 Excavations Volume 2. Oxford & Salisbury: Framework ArchaeologyGoogle Scholar
Lock, G. 2011. Hillforts, emotional metaphors, and the good life: a response to Armit. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 77, 355362CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCullagh, R.P.J., Tipping, R. 1998. The Lairg Project 1988–1996: the evolution of an archaeological landscape in northern Scotland. Edinburgh: Scottish Trust for Archaeological ResearchGoogle Scholar
McGill, C. 2003. The excavation of a palisaded enclosure and associated structures at Ironshill East, near Inverkeillor, Angus. Tayside & Fife Archaeological Journal 9, 1433Google Scholar
Macinnes, L. 1982. Pattern and purpose: the settlement evidence. In Harding (ed.) 1982, 57–74Google Scholar
MacKie, E. 1976. The vitrified forts of Scotland. In Harding (ed.) 1967, 205–35Google Scholar
Miles, D. 1965. Socio-economic aspects of secondary burial. Oceania 35, 161174CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Megaw, J., Simpson, D. (eds). 1978. Introduction to British Prehistory. Leicester: Leicester University PressGoogle Scholar
McLaren, D., Hunter, F. 2008. New aspects of rotary querns in Scotland. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 138, 105128CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, T. 2006. Iron Age societies in the Severn-Cotswolds: developing narratives of social and landscape change. Oxford: ArchaeopressGoogle Scholar
Murray, H., Murray, J. 2006. Thainstone Business Park, Inverurie, Aberdeenshire. Scottish Archaeological Internet Report 21, www.sair.org.uk. Accessed 06/12/2012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, R. 2007. Iron-masters of the Caledonians. Current Archaeology 212, 2025http://www.archaeology.co.uk/articles/features/iron-masters-of-the-caledonians.htm. Accessed 06/12/2012Google Scholar
Von Nicola, C. 2009. La question des Viererckschanzen d'Allemagne du sud revisitée. In I. Bertrand, A. Duval, J. Gomez de Soto & P. Maguer (eds), Habitats et paysages ruraux en Gaule et regards sur d'autres regions du monde celtique. Actes du XXXIe colloque international de l'Association Française pour l'Etude de l’Âge du Fer 17–20 mai 2007, Chauvigny (Vienne, F), 245280. Chauvigny: Association des Publications Chauvinoises 2Google Scholar
Noble, G. 2006. Neolithic Scotland: timber, stone, earth and fire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noble, G., Gondek, M. 2010. Together as one: the landscape of the symbol stones at Rhynie, Aberdeenshire. In Driscoll et al. (eds) 2010, 95–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noble, G., Gondek, M. 2011. Symbol stones in context: excavations at Rhynie, an undocumented Pictish power centre of the 6th–7th centuries ad? Medieval Archaeology 55, 317321Google Scholar
Parker Pearson, M., Sharples, N. 1999. Between Land and Sea, Excavations at Dun Vulan, South Uist. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, SEARCH 3Google Scholar
Perry, D. 2000. Castle Park, Dunbar: 2000 years of a fortified headland. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of ScotlandGoogle Scholar
Piggott, S. 1966. A scheme for the Scottish Iron Age. In Rivet, A. (ed.), The Iron Age in northern Britain, 116. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University PressGoogle Scholar
Pope, R. 2003. Prehistoric Dwelling Circular Structures in North and Central Britain c. 2500 bcad 500. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Durham, Department of ArchaeologyGoogle Scholar
Ralston, I. 1980. The Green Castle and the promontory forts of north-east Scotland. Scottish Archaeological Forum 10, 2740Google Scholar
Ralston, I. 1986. The Yorkshire Television Vitrified Wall Experiment at East Tullos, City of Aberdeen District. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 116, 1740CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ralston, I. 1987. Portknockie: promontory forts and Pictish settlement in the north-east. In A. Small (ed.), The Picts: a new look at old problems, 1526. Dundee: University of DundeeGoogle Scholar
Ralston, I. 1997. Pictish homes. In D. Henry (ed.), The Worm, the Germ and the Thorn: Pictish and related studies presented to Isabel Henderson, 1834. Balgavies: Pinkfoot PressGoogle Scholar
Ralston, I. 2004. The Hillforts of Pictland since ‘The Problem of the Picts’. Rosemarkie: Groam HouseGoogle Scholar
Ralston, I. 2006. Celtic Fortifications. Stroud: TempusGoogle Scholar
Ralston, I. 2007. The Caterthuns and the hillforts of north-east Scotland. In Dunwell & Strachan 2007, 9–12Google Scholar
Ralston, I., Sabine, K., Watt, W. 1983. Later prehistoric settlements in north-east Scotland: a preliminary assessment. In J. Chapman & H. Mytum (eds), Settlement in North Britain 1000 bcad 1000, 149173. Oxford: British Archaeological Report 118Google Scholar
Ralston, I., Sabine, K. 2000. Excavations of Second and First Millennia bc remains on the Sands of Forvie, Slains. Aberdeen: Department of Geography & Environment, University of AberdeenGoogle Scholar
RCAHMS 1971. Argyll: An Inventory of the Ancient Monuments. Volume 1: Kintyre. Edinburgh: HMSOGoogle Scholar
RCAHMS 2007. In The Shadow of Bennachie: a field archaeology of Donside, Aberdeenshire. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland & the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historic Monuments of ScotlandGoogle Scholar
Rideout, J., Owe, O., Halpin, E. 1992. Hillforts of Southern Scotland. Edinburgh: AOC ScotlandGoogle Scholar
Ross, A. 1974. Pagan Celtic Britain. London: SphereGoogle Scholar
Scottish Archaeological Research Framework (SCARF) nd. Section 6.5 Chronology and Development of Enclosed Places. Available on line at http://www.scottishheritagehub.com/content/65-chronology-and-development-enclosed-places. Last accessed 8th April 2013Google Scholar
Sharples, N. 2011. Review of C. Haselgrove 2009. Prehistoric Society Book Reviews. Available online at <http://www.prehistoricsociety.org/publications/reviews/P10/> Last accessed 4 June 2012+Last+accessed+4+June+2012>Google Scholar
Shepherd, I., Shepherd, A. 1978. An incised Pictish figure and a new symbol stone from Barflat, Rhynie, Gordon District. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 109, 211222CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shepherd, I., Ralston, I. 1979. Early Grampian: a guide to the archaeology. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University PressGoogle Scholar
Small, A., Cottam, B. 1972. Craig Phadrig. Dundee: University of DundeeGoogle Scholar
Strachan, R., Hamilton, J., Dunwell, A. 2003. Excavation of cropmark enclosures in Angus at Mains of Edzell, Edzell and Hawkhill, Lunan. Tayside & Fife Archaeological Journal 9, 3464Google Scholar
Taylor, C.B. 1982. Excavation of a promontory fort, broch and souterrain at Hurly Hawkin, Angus. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 112, 215253CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, D.B. 1990. Circular Homesteads in North West Perthshire. Dundee: Abertay Archaeological SocietyGoogle Scholar
Thomas, R. 1997. Land, kinship relations and the rise of enclosed settlements in first millennium bc Britain. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 16, 211218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tipping, R. 1994. The form and fate of Scotland's woodlands. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 124, 154CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tipping, R. 2002. Climate variability and ‘marginal’ settlement in upland British landscapes: a re-evaluation. Landscapes 3(2), 1029CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wainwright, F. (ed.). 1955. The Problem of the Picts. Edinburgh: NelsonGoogle Scholar
Wainwright, F. 1963. The Souterrains of Southern Scotland. London: Routledge & Kegan PaulGoogle Scholar
Watkins, T. 1980. Excavation of an Iron Age open settlement at Dalladies, Kincardineshire. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 110, 165208CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, W. 1926. The History of the Celtic Place Names of Scotland. Edinburgh: William Blackwood & SonGoogle Scholar
Welfare, A. 2011. Great Crowns of Stone: the recumbent stone circles of Scotland. Edinburgh: Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments of ScotlandGoogle Scholar
White, R., Richardson, P. 2010. The Excavation of Bronze Age Roundhouses at Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire. Scottish Archaeological Internet Report 43, www.sair.org.uk. Accessed 06/12/2012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, J. 1777. An Account of some Remarkable Ancient Ruins, Lately Discovered in the Highlands, and Northern Parts of Scotland. In a series of letters to G. C. M. Esq; By John Williams, EdinburghGoogle Scholar
Wilson, E.M. 1980. Excavations at West Mains of Ethie, Angus. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 110, 114121CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woolf, A. 2006. Dun Nectain, Fortiu and the geography of the Picts. Scottish Historical Review 85, 182201Google Scholar
Woolf, A. 2007. From Pictland to Alba 789–1070. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University PressGoogle Scholar