Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T14:23:02.997Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Lower Palaeolithic Site at Red Barns, Portchester, Hampshire: Bifacial Technology, Raw Material Quality, and the Organisation of Archaic Behaviour

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 February 2014

Francis Wenban-Smith ,
Clive Gamble  and
Arthur Apsimon
Francis Wenban-Smith
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ
Clive Gamble
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ
Arthur Apsimon
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The site at Red Barns was excavated in 1975, but the large lithic collection remained unstudied following preliminary examination. This paper reports on further analysis of the lithic material from the site, together with a reappraisal of the faunal remains and original mineralogical analyses, and the results of processing sediment samples from the 1975 excavation. An abundant molluscan assemblage was recovered from the deposits covering the main archaeological horizon, allowing climatic/environmental reconstruction and amino acid dating. The synthesis of these data indicates the site to be older than previously thought, dating to between 425,000 and 200,000 BP.

Analysis of the lithic material has suggested that the site is an undisturbed palimpsest of flint tools and debitage. The poor, severely frost-fractured nature of the raw material used for knapping, together with the location of the site on a Chalk outcrop, have enabled investigation of some assumptions about the influences upon knapping technology of i) poor quality raw material and ii) local availability of flint fresh from Chalk bedrock. The persistent manufacture of finely worked plano-convex handaxes suggests that, even in an area where fresh Chalk flint must have been abundant, the immediately available poor quality flint source was not a bar to formation of an assemblage dominated by handaxe production. Secondly, the emphasis on carefully shaped pointed plano-convex handaxes suggests that this shape was both deliberately imposed and not dictated by a lack of local availability of flint fresh from the Chalk. Behaviour at the site was investigated by analysis of the organisation of the lithic production and it was demonstrated that, while some handaxes and flake-tools were abandoned at the site and some flake core reduction also took place there, the dominant pattern was for handaxes to be made at the site and then removed and abandoned elsewhere.

Résumé

Le site de Red Barns a été fouillé en 1975, mais on n'a pas poursuivi l'étude de l'importante collection lithique après les examens préliminaires. Cet ouvrage rend compte des analyses supplémentaires du matériel lithique provenant du site, auxquelles s'ajoutent une réévaluation des restes de faune et des analyses minéralogiques originelles, ainsi que les résultats de l'investigation d'échantillons sédimentaires des fouilles de 1975. Un abondant assemblage de mollusques a été retrouvé dans les dépôts qui couvraient le principal horizon archéologique, ce qui a permis une reconstruction climatique/environnementale et une datation des acides aminés. La synthèse de ces données indique que le site est plus ancien qu'on ne le pensait auparavant et date d'entre 425 000 et 200 000 avant le présent.

L'analyse des matériaux lithiques a donné à penser que le site constitue un palimpseste intact d'outils en silex et de débitage. La matière première utilisée pour le martelage, de qualité médiocre et sérieusement fracturée par le gel, ainsi que la situation du site sur un affleurement crétacé, nous ont permis d'analyser certaines hypothèses sur les influences qu'ont exercé sur la technologie du martelage de la pierre 1) la médiocre qualité de la matière première et 2) la présence sur le site de silex vierge provenant de la couche crétacée. La persistance de la fabrication de coups-de-poing piano-convexes délicatement travaillés donne à penser que, même dans une région où le silex vierge du Crétacé devait être abondant, la médiocre qualité de la source de silex locale n'était pas venue entraver la formation d'un assemblage dominé par la production de coups de poing. Deuxièmement, l'importance accordée aux coups de poing piano-convexes pointus soigneusement taillés suggère que cette forme était à la fois directement imposée et n'était pas dictée par le manque de disponibilité de silex local fraîchement taillé du crétacé On a étudié les comportements sur le site en analysant l'organisation de la production lithique, ce qui a mis en évidence que, bien que certains coups de poing et certains outils sur éclats aient été abandonnés sur le site et qu'une certaine quantité de réduction de nucléus par éclatement ait eu lieu là, la pratique dominante consistait à fabriquer les coups de poing sur le site puis à les exporter et les abandonner ailleurs.

Zusammenfassung

Die Fundstelle in Red Barns wurde 1975 ausgegraben, doch blieben größere lithische Kollektionen nach vorläufiger Untersuchung unbearbeitet. Dieser Artikel berichtet über weiterführende Analysen des lithischen Materials der Fundstelle und eine Neubewertung der Faunareste, mineralogische Originalanalysen und Ergebnisse von Sedimentproben der Ausgrabung von 1975. Ein reiches Molluskeninventar wurde aus den Ablagerungen des archäologischen Haupthorizonts geborgen, was eine Rekonstruktion des Klimas/Umwelt und eine Aminosäurendatierung ermöglicht. Die Synthese dieser Daten deutet darauf hin, daß die Fundstelle älter als vorher angenommen ist, und zwischen 425,000 und 200,000 BP datiert.

Die Analyse des lithischen Materials weist darauf hin, daß die Fundstelle ein ungestörtes Palimpsest von Feuersteingeräten und Abschlägen ist. Die schlechte, stark frostgeschädigte Natur des Rohmaterials, das für die Steinbearbeitung benutzt wurde, ermöglichten, zusammen mit der Lokalität der Fundstelle auf einem Kalksediment, die Überprüfung von einigen Annahmen in bezug auf die Einflüsse von i) schlechter Qualität des Rohmaterials und ii) lokaler Verfügbarkeit von Feuerstein, der frisch vom Flußbett in Kalkgestein stammt, auf die Technologie der Steinbearbeitung. Die fortdauernde Herstellung von fein gearbeiteten flacl-konvexen Faustkeilen weist darauf hin, daß sogar in einem Gebiet, wo frischer Kalkfeuerstein reichlich vorhanden war, die lokale schlechte Qualität der Quelle des Feuersteins kein Hindernis zur Formation eines Inventars war, in dem die Faustkeilproduktion vorherrschte. Zweitens deutet der Schwerpunkt sorgfältig geformter, zugespitzter flacl-konvexer Faustkeile darauf hin, daß diese Form absichtlich eingesetzt wurde und auch nicht durch mangelnde lokale Verfügbarkeit von frischem Feuerstein aus Kalkgestein notwendig gemacht wurde. Das Verhalten an der Fundstelle wurde mit Hilfe einer Analyse der Organisation der lithischen Produktion untersucht. Es wurde gezeigt, daß während Faustkeile und Abschlaggeräte an der Fundstelle aufgegeben und auch etwas Abbau von Abschlagkernen unternommen wurde, war das vorherrschende Muster für Faustkeile, daß sie an der Fundstelle hergestellt, dann ausgeführt und anderswo aufgegeben wurden.

Resúmen

El yacimiento de Red Barns fué excavado en 1978, pero, tras un examen preliminar, la abundante colección lítica permaneció sin ser estudiada. Este artículo expone el posterior análisis del material lítico junto con una reevaluación de los restos animales y de los análisis mineralógicos originales, y de los resultados del procesamiento de las muestras de sedimentos procedentes de la excavación de 1975. Se recuperaron abundantes restos de moluscos de los depósitos del principal horizonte arqueológico, que permiten la reconstrucción climática y medio-ambiental y la datación por amino-ácidos. La síntesis de estos datos indica que el yacimiento es anterior a lo previamente pensado, datando de un momento entre 425.000 y 200.000 B.P.

El análisis del material lítico ha sugerido que el yacimiento es un palimpsesto no alterado de instrumentos de sílex y restos. La naturaleza pobre y gravemente fracturada por el hielo de la materia prima usada en la producción de instrumentos de piedra, junto con el emplazamiento del yacimiento en un terreno calizo, han permitido la investigación de algunas suposiciones sobre la influencia en la tecnología de la producción de instrumentos de piedra de (i) materias primas de baja calidad y (ii) disponibilidad local de nuevo sílex procedente del lecho calizo. La manufactura constante de hachas de mano de perfil plano-convexo muy bien trabajadas sugiere que, incluso en una zona donde el nuevo sílex extraído de la creta debe haber sido abundante, la pobre calidad de la fuente local de sílex no fué obstáculo para la formación de un conjunto de material dominado por la producción de hachas de mano. En segundo lugar, el empeño en la talla cuidadosa de hachas de mano de perfil agmidaloide cuidadosamente formadas denota que esta forma era deliberada y no dictada por la falta de disponibilidad local de nuevo sílex procedente de la creta. Se investigó el comportamiento en el yacimiento a través del análisis de la organización de la producción lítica y se demostró que, mientras algunas hachas y utensilios sobre lasca quedaron abandonados en el sitio y algunas lascas procedentes de la redución de núcleos también permanecieron allí, el modelo dominante fué que las hachas fueron fabricadas en el yacimiento y luego exportadas y abandonadas en otros lugares.

Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society , Volume 66 , 2000 , pp. 209 - 255
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ApSimon, A.M., Gamble, C.S. & Shackley, M.L. 1977. Pleistocene raised beaches on Ports Down, Hampshire. Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club and Archaeological Society 33, 17–32Google Scholar
Ashton, N. 1998. The spatial distribution of the flint artefacts and human behaviour. In Ashton, N., Lewis, S.G. & Parfitt, S.A. (eds), Excavations at the Lower Palaeolithic Site at East Farm, Barnham, Suffolk 1989–94, 251–8. London: British Museum Occasional Paper 125Google Scholar
Ashton, N. & McNabb, J. 1994. Bifaces in perspective. In Ashton, N. & David, A. (eds), Stories in Stone, 182–91. London: Lithic Studies Society Occasional Paper 4Google Scholar
Ashton, N. & McNabb, J. 1996. The flint industries from the Waechter excavations. In Conway, et al. (eds) 1996, 201–36Google Scholar
Ashton, N., McNabb, J., Irving, B., Lewis, S. & Parfitt, S. 1994. Contemporaneity of Clactonian and Acheulian flint industries at Barnham, Suffolk. Antiquity 68, 585–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, P., Fontes, J-C., Gasse, F. & Druart, J-C. 1994. Experimental dissolution of diatom silica in concentrated salt solutions and implications for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Limnology & Oceanography 39, 99–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, M.R. 1993. Quaternary aminostratigraphy in northwestern France. Quaternary Science Reviews 12, 793–809CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, M.R., Parfitt, S.A. & Roberts, M.B. 1997. The chronology, palaeogeography and archaeological significance of the marine Quaternary record of the West Sussex Coastal Plain, southern England, U.K. Quaternary Science Reviews 16, 1227–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Battarbee, R.W. 1986. Diatom analyis. In Berglund, B.E. (ed.), Handbook of Holocene Palaeoecology and Palaeohydrology, 527–70. Chichester: John WileyGoogle Scholar
Berger, A.L., Imbrie, J., Hays, J.D., Kukla, G.J. & Salzman, B. (eds). 1984. Milankovitch and Climate. Dordrecht: ReidelCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L.R. 1978. Nunamuit Ethnoarcbaeology. New York: Academic PressGoogle Scholar
Binford, L.R. 1979. Organisation and formation processes: looking at curated technologies. Journal of Anthropological Research 35, 172–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L.R. 1980. Willow smoke and dogs' tails: hunter gatherer settlement systems and archaeological site formation. American Antiquity 45, 4–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L.R. 1981. Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths. New York: Academic PressGoogle Scholar
Binford, L.R. 1985. Human ancestors: changing views of their behaviour. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 4, 292–327CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L.R. 1987. Searching for camps and missing the evidence? Another look at the Lower Palaeolithic. In Soffer, O. (ed.), The Pleistocene Old World: regional perspectives, 17–31. New York: Plenum PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, L.R. 1989. Isolating the transition to cultural adaptations: an organisational approach. In Trinkaus, E. (ed.), The Emergence of Modern Humans: biocultural adaptations in the later Pleistocene, 18–41. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Binford, L.R. & Binford, S.R. 1966. A preliminary analysis of functional variability in the Mousterian of Levallois facies. American Anthropologist 68(2), 238–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, S.R. & Binford, L.R. 1969. Stone tools and human behaviour. Scientific American 220, 70–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bishop, W.W. 1958. The Pleistocene geology and geomorphology of three gaps in the Middle Jurassic escarpment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 241, 255–306Google Scholar
Boëda, E. 1991. Approche de la variabilité des systèmes de production lithique des industries du Palaéolithique inférieur et moyen: chronique d'une variabilité attendue. Technique et culture 17–18, 37–79Google Scholar
Boëda, E., Geneste, J-M. & Meignes, L. 1990. Identification de chaînes opératoires lithiques du Paléolithique Ancien et Moyen. Paléo 2, 43–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bordes, F. 1950. L'Evolution buissonnante des industries en Europe occidentale: considérations théoriques sur le Paléolithique Ancien et Moyen. L'Anthropologie 54, 393–420Google Scholar
Bordes, F. 1961. Typologie du Paleolithique Ancien et Moyen. Bordeaux: DelmasGoogle Scholar
Bordes, F. 1972. A Tale of Two Caves. New York: Harpers & RowGoogle Scholar
Bordes, F. 1979. Typologie du Paléolithique Ancien et Moyen, 3rd edn. Paris: Centre Nationale de Récherche ScientifiqueGoogle Scholar
Bosinski, G. 1982. The transition Lower/Middle Palaeolithic in northwestern Germany. In Ronen, A. (ed.), The Transition from Lower to Middle Palaeolithic and the Origin of Modern Man, 165–75. Oxford: British Archaeological Report S151Google Scholar
Bowen, D.Q., Hughes, S., Sykes, G.A. and Miller, G.H. 1989. Land-sea correlations in the Pleistocene based on isoleucine epimerization in non-marine molluscs. Nature 340, 49–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, B. & Sampson, C.G. 1986. Analysis by replication of two Acheulian artefact assemblages. In Bailey, G., & Callow, P. (eds), Stone Age Prehistory: studies in honour of Charles McBurney, 29–45. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Breuil, H. 1926. Palaeolithic industries from the beginning of the Rissian to the beginning of the Wiirmian glaciation. Man 116, 176–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breuil, H. 1932. Les industries à éclats du Paléolithique ancien: I. Le Clactonien. Préhistoire 1, 125–90Google Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. 1994. Quaternary of the Thames. London: Chapman & HallCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. 1996. Quaternary river terrace deposits as a framework for the Lower Palaeolithic record. In Gamble, C.S. & Lawson, A.J. (eds), The English Palaeolithic Reviewed, 24–39. Salisbury: Trust for Wessex ArchaeologyGoogle Scholar
Briggs, D.J. 1976. Some Quaternary problems in the Oxford area. In Roe, D.A. (ed.), Field Guide to the Oxford Region, 6–7. Oxford: Quaternary Research AssociationGoogle Scholar
British Geological Survey. 1998. Fareham. England and Wales Sheet 316. Solid and Drift Geology. 1:50,000. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological SurveyGoogle Scholar
Conway, B.W., Ashton, N.M. & McNabb, J. (eds). 1996. Excavations at Barnfield Pit, Swanscombe, 1968–72. London: British Museum Occasional Paper 94Google Scholar
Currant, A. 1989. The Quaternary origins of the modern British mammal fauna. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 38, 23–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, I. 1991. The archaeology of language origins. Antiquity 65, 39–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, I. & Noble, W. 1993. Tools and language in human evolution. In Gibson, K.R. & Ingold, T. (eds), Tools, Language and Cognition in Human Evolution, 363–88. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Flower, R.J. 1993. Diatom preservation: experiments and observations on disolution and breakage in modern and fossil material. Hydrobiologia 269/70, 473–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foley, R. 1987. Another Unique Species: patterns in human evolutionary ecology. Harlow: LongmanGoogle Scholar
Fowler, J. 1932. The ‘100 ft’ raised-beach between Arundel and Chichester, Sussex. Quarterly journal of the Geological Society 88, 84–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gamble, C.S. 1986. The Palaeolithic Settlement of Europe. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Gamble, C.S. 1999. The Palaeolithic Societies of Europe. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Gamble, C.S. & ApSimon, A.M. 1986. Red Barns – Portchester. In Collcutt, S.N. (ed.), The Palaeolithic of Britain and its Nearest Neighbours: recent trends, 8–12. Sheffield: Dept of Archaeology, University of SheffieldGoogle Scholar
Gowlett, J.A.J. 1984. Mental abilities of early man: a look at some hard evidence. In Foley, R.A. (ed.), Hominid Evolution and Community Ecology, 167–92. London: Academic PressGoogle Scholar
Green, H.S. 1984. Pontnewydd Cave: a Lower Palaeolithic Hominid Site in Wales, the First Report. Cardiff: National Museum of WalesGoogle Scholar
Horton, A., Keen, D.H., Field, M.H., Robinson, J.E., Coope, G.R., Currant, A.P., Graham, D.K., Green, C.P. & Phillips, L.M. 1992. The Hoxnian interglacial deposits at Woodston, Peterborough. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 338, 131–64Google Scholar
Johnson, B.J. & Miller, G.H. 1997. Archaeological applications of amino acid racemization. Archaeometry 39, 265–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koenigswald, W. & Kolfschoten, T. van. 1996. The Mimomys–Arvicola boundary and the enamel thickness quotient (SDQ) of Arvicola as stratigraphic markers in the Middle Pleistocene. In Turner, C. (ed.), The Early Middle Pleistocene in Europe, 211–26. Rotterdam: BalkemaGoogle Scholar
Kohn, M. & Mithen, S. 1999. Handaxes: products of sexual selection? Antiquity 73, 518–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lacaille, A.D. 1940. The Palaeoliths from the gravels of the Lower Boyn Hill Terrace around Maidenhead. Antiquaries Journal 20, 245–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lister, A.M. 1993. ‘Gradualistic’ evolution: its interpretations in Quaternary large mammal species. Quaternary International 19, 77–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddy, D., Keen, D.H., Bridgland, D.R. & Green, C.P. 1991. A revised model for the Pleistocene development of the River Avon, Warwickshire, Journal of the Geological Society of London 148, 473–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNabb, J. & Ashton, N.M. 1992. The cutting edge: bifaces in the Clactonian. Lithics 13, 4–10Google Scholar
McNabb, J. & Ashton, N.M. 1995. Thoughtful flakers. Antiquity 5, 289–301Google Scholar
Mitchell, G.F., Penny, L.F., Shotton, F.W. & West, R.G. 1973. A Correlation of the Quaternary Deposits of the British Isles. London: Geological Society of London, Special report 4Google Scholar
Mithen, S. 1994. Technology and society during the Middle Pleistocene: hominid group size, social learning and industrial variability. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 4, 3–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G.H. & Brigham-Grette, J. 1989. Amino acid geochronology; resolution and precision in carbonate fossils. Quaternary International 1, 111–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, P.D. & Webb, J.A. 1979. An Illustrated Guide to Pollen Analysis. London: Hodder & StoughtonGoogle Scholar
Moore, P.D., Webb, J.A. & Collinson, M. 1991. Pollen Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell ScientificGoogle Scholar
Mortillet, G. de & Mortillet, A. de. 1883. Musée Préhistorique. ParisGoogle Scholar
Newcomer, M.H. 1971. Some quantitative experiments in hand-axe manufacture. World Archaeology 3, 85–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newcomer, M.H. 1975. Spontaneous retouch. Staringia 3, 62–4Google Scholar
Newcomer, M.H. & Sieveking, G.de, G. 1980. Experimental flake scatter patterns: a new interpretive technique, Journal of Field Archaeology 7, 345–52Google Scholar
Parfitt, S.A. 1998. Pleistocene vertebrate faunas of the West Sussex coastal plain: their stratigraphic and palaeoenvironmental significance. In Murton, J.B., Whiteman, C.A., Bates, M.R., Bridgland, D.R., Long, A.J., Roberts, M.B. & Walker, M.P. (eds), The Quaternary of Kent and Sussex: Field Guide, 121–35. London: Quaternary Research AssociationGoogle Scholar
Parfitt, S.A., Owen, F. & Keen, D.H. 1998. Pleistocene stratigraphy, vertebrates and Mollusca; Black Rock, Brighton. In Murton, J.B., Whiteman, C.A., Bates, M.R., Bridgland, D.R., Long, A.J., Roberts, M.B., & Waller, M.B. (eds), The Quaternary of Kent and Sussex, 146–50. London: Quaternary Research AssociationGoogle Scholar
Parks, D.A. & Rendell, H.M. 1992. TL geochronology of brickearths from south-east England. Quaternary Science Reviews 11, 7–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penck, A. & Brückner, E. 1909. Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter. LeipzigGoogle Scholar
Pitts, M. & Roberts, M.B. 1997. Fairweather Eden. London: CenturyGoogle Scholar
Prestwich, J. 1872. On the presence of a raised beach on Ports Down Hill, near Portsmouth. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 28, 38–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Révillion, S. & Tuffreau, A. 1994. Les Industries Laminaires au Paleolithique Moyen. Paris: CNRSGoogle Scholar
Roberts, M.B. 1996a. Man the hunter returns at Boxgrove. British Archaeology 18, 8–9Google Scholar
Roberts, M.B. 1996b. And then came clothing and speech. British Archaeology 19, 8–9Google Scholar
Roberts, M.B. 1999. Quarry 2 GTP 17. In Roberts, & Parfitt, 1999a, 372–8Google Scholar
Roberts, M.B. & Parfitt, S.A. (eds). 1999a. Boxgrove: a Middle Pleistocene Hominid Site. London: English HeritageGoogle Scholar
Roberts, M.B. & Parfitt, S.A. 1999b. Biostratigraphy and summary. In Roberts, & Parfitt, (eds) 1999a, 303–7Google Scholar
Roberts, M.B., Parfitt, S.A., Pope, M.I & Wenban-Smith, F.F. 1997. Boxgrove, West Sussex: rescue excavations of a Lower Palaeolithic landsurface (Boxgrove Project B., 1989–91). Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 63, 303–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roe, D.A. 1964. The British Lower and Middle Paleolithic: some problems, methods of study and preliminary results. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 30, 245–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roe, D.A. 1968a. British Lower and Middle Palaeolithic handaxe groups. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 34, 1–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roe, D.A. 1968b. A Gazetteer of British Lower and Middle Palaeolithic Sites. London: Council for British Archaeology Research Report 8Google Scholar
Roe, D.A. 1981. The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic Periods in Britain. London: Routledge & Kegan PaulGoogle Scholar
Rose, J. 1991. Stratigraphic basis of the ‘Wolstonian Glaciation’ and retention of the term ‘Wolstonian’ as a chronostratigraphic Stage name – a discussion. In Lewis, S.G., Whiteman, C.A. & Bridgland, D.R. (eds), Central Last Anglia and the Fen Basin: Field Guide, 15–20. London: Quaternary Research AssociationGoogle Scholar
Sandford, K.S. 1924. The river gravels of the Oxford district. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 80, 113–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlanger, N. 1996. Understanding Levallois: lithic technology and cognitive archaeology. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 6, 231–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schreve, D.C. 2000. The vertebrate assemblage from Hoxne, Suffolk. In Lewis, S.G., Whiteman, C.A. & Preece, R.C. (eds), The Quaternary of Norfolk and Suffolk: Field Guide, 155–64. London: Quaternary Research AssociationGoogle Scholar
Shackleton, N.J. 1987. Oxygen Isotopes, ice volume and sea level. Quaternary Science Reviews 6, 183–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shackleton, N.J. & Opdyke, N.D. 1973. Oxygen isotope and palaeo-magnetic stratigraphy of equatorial pacific core V28–238: oxygen isotope temperatures and volumes at a 105 and 106 year scale. Quaternary Research 3, 39–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spurrell, F.C.J. 1884. On some Palaeolithic knapping tools and modes of using them. Journal of the Anthropological Institute 13, 109–18Google Scholar
Stauffer, B. 1999. Cornucopia of ice core results. Nature 399, 412–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stringer, C.B. 1985. The Swanscombe fossil skull. In Duff, K.L. (ed.), The Story of Swanscombe Man, 14–9. Peterborough: Nature Conservancy CouncilGoogle Scholar
Stringer, C.B. & Gamble, C.S. 1993. In Search of the Neanderthals: solving the puzzle of human origins. London: Thames & HudsonGoogle Scholar
Stuart, A.J. 1995. Insularity and Quaternary vertebrate faunas in Britain and Ireland. In Preece, R.C. (ed.), Island Britain: a Quaternary perspective, 111–26. London: Geological SocietyGoogle Scholar
Sutcliffe, A.J. 1995. Insularity of the British Isles 250,000–30,000 years ago: the mammalian evidence. In Preece, R.C. (ed.), Island Britain: a Quaternary perspective, 127–40. London: Geological SocietyGoogle Scholar
Sutcliffe, A.J. & Kowalski, K. 1976. Pleistocene Rodents in the British Isles. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (Geology) 27Google Scholar
Thieme, H. 1997. Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature 385, 807–10CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tomlinson, M.E. 1963. The Pleistocene chronology of the Midlands. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 74, 187–202CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tuffreau, A. 1979. Les débuts du Paléolithique moyen dans la France septentrionale. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 76, 140–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tuffreau, A. 1982. The transition Lower/Middle Palaeolithic in northern France. In Ronen, A. (ed.), The Transition from Lower to Middle Palaeolithic and the Origin of Modern Man, 137–49. Oxford: British Archaeological Report S151Google Scholar
Tuffreau, A. & Antoine, P. 1995. The earliest occupation of Europe: continental northwestern Europe. In Roebroeks, W. & Kolfschoten, T. van (eds), The Earliest Occupation of Europe, 147–64. Leiden: University of LeidenGoogle Scholar
Tuffreau, A. & Sommé, J. 1988. Le Gisement Paléolithique Moyen de Biache-Saint-Vaast (Pas-de-Calais). Volume I. Stratigraphie, Environment, Etudes Archaeologiques (1ère Partie). Paris: Mémoires de la Société Préhistorique Françhise 21Google Scholar
Tyldesley, J.A. 1986. The Wolvercote Channel Handaxe Assemblage: a comparative study. Oxford: British Archaeological Report 153CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wehmiller, J.F. 1993. Applications of organic geochemistry for Quaternary research: aminostratigraphy and aminochronology. In Engel, M.H. & Hacko, S.A. (eds), Organic Geochemistry, 755–83. New York: Plenum PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. 1985. Analysis of Experimentally Produced Flint Debitage and On-site Application of Results. Unpublished BA dissertation, University of London, Institute of ArchaeologyGoogle Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. 1989. The use of canonical variates for determination of biface manufacturing technology at Boxgrove Lower Palaeolithic site and the behavioural implications of this technology. Journal of Archaeological Science 16, 17–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. 1995a. Another one bites the dust. Lithics 16, 99–108Google Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. 1995b. The Ebbsfleet Valley, Northfleet (Baker's Hole). In Bridgland, D.R., Allen, P. & Haggart, B.A. (eds), The Quaternary of the Lower Reaches of the Thames: Field Guide, 147–64. Durham: Quaternary Research AssociationGoogle Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. 1996. The Palaeolithic Archaeology of Baker's Hole: a case study for focus in lithic analysis. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of SouthamptonGoogle Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. 1998. Clactonian and Acheulian industries in Britain: their chronology and significance reconsidered. In Ashton, N., Healy, F. & Pettitt, P. (eds), Stone Age Archaeology: essays in honour of John Wymer, 90–7. Oxford: Oxbow BooksGoogle Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. 1999. Knapping technology. In Roberts, & Parfitt, (eds) 1999a, 384–95Google Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. & Bridgland, D.R. 1997. Newly discovered Pleistocene deposits at Swanscombe: an interim report. Lithics 17/18, 3–8Google Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. & Ashton, N. 1998. Raw material and lithic technology. In Ashton, N., Lewis, S.G. & Parfitt, S.A. (eds), Excavations at the Lower Palaeolithic Site at East Farm, Barnham, Suffolk 1989–94, 237–44. London: British Museum Occasional Paper 125Google Scholar
White, M.J. 1994. Raw materials and biface variability in southern Britain: a preliminary examination. Lithics 15, 1–20Google Scholar
White, M.J. 1998a. On the significance of Acheulean biface variability in southern Britain. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 64, 15–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, M.J. 1998b. Twisted ovate bifaces in the British Lower Palaeolithic: some observations and implications. In Ashton, N., Healy, F. & Pettitt, P. (eds), Stone Age Archaeology: essays in honour of John Wymer, 98–104Oxford: Oxbow BooksGoogle Scholar
Woodburne, M. and Sondaar, P. (eds). 1988. Studying Fossil Horses, Volume I: Methodology. Leiden: E.J. BrillCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wymer, J.J. 1968. Lower Palaeolithic Archaeology in Britain as Represented by the Thames Valley. London: John BakerGoogle Scholar
Wymer, J.J. 1974. Clactonian and Acheulian industries in Britain – their chronology and significance. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 85, 391–421CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wymer, J.J. 1988. Palaeolithic archaeology and the British Quaternary sequence. Quaternary Science Reviews 7, 79–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wynn, T. 1985. Piaget, stone tools and the evolution of human intelligence. World Archaeology 17, 32–43CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed