Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T03:04:35.947Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Levallois Knapping Site at West Thurrock, Lower Thames, UK: its Quaternary Context, Environment and Age

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 February 2014

D.C. Schreve ,
P. Harding ,
M.J. White ,
D.R. Bridgland ,
P. Allen ,
F. Clayton ,
D.H. Keen  and
K.E.H. Penkman
D.C. Schreve
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, UK.
P. Harding
Affiliation:
Wessex Archaeology, Portway House, Old Sarum Park, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 6EB, UK.
M.J. White
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, Science Laboratories, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK.
D.R. Bridgland
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, University of Durham, Science Laboratories, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK.
P. Allen
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, UK.
F. Clayton
Affiliation:
18 Scrivens Mead, Thatcham, Berkshire, RG19 4FQ, UK
D.H. Keen
Affiliation:
BioArch, Biology S Block, University of York, PO Box 373, York, YO10 5YW, UK.
K.E.H. Penkman
Affiliation:
BioArch, Biology S Block, University of York, PO Box 373, York, YO10 5YW, UK.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Levallois knapping debris is present beneath the sides of a disused tramway cutting connected to Lion Pit, West Thurrock, Essex. This occurrence, first recorded during the early 20th century, is in the basal gravel of the Taplow/Mucking Formation, which dates from the end of Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage (MIS) 8. The relatively undisturbed nature of this knapping debris is confirmed by the incidence of refitting material, although finer debitage is absent, presumably winnowed out. The Levallois character of the assemblage is demonstrated by the occurrence of characteristic ‘tortoise’ cores and flakes with faceted striking platforms. The artefact-bearing gravel is overlain by >10 m of predominantly fine-grained sediments, including fossiliferous sands and massive clayey silt, as well as laminated silts, clays, and sands of possible estuarine origin. These are attributed to deposition under temperate conditions during MIS 7. To the south, a younger fluvial gravel, attributed to MIS 6, has been incised into the interglacial sequence. The top of the estuarine sequence has been affected by pedogenesis, both before and after its burial by an unbedded solifluction gravel.

Résumé

Des débris de frappe Levallois sont présents sous les remblais de la tranchée d'une ligne de tramway désaffectée reliée au Lion Pit, West Thurrock, Essex. Cette présence observée pour la première fois au début du vingtième siècle, se situe dans le gravier à la base de la formation Taplow/Mucking, qui date de la fin du stade d'isotope d'oxygène marin (OIS) 8. L'aspect relativement peu perturbé de ces débris de frappe se confirme par la présence de matériaux de retouche, bien que le débitage plus fin soit absent, probablement passé à travers le tamis. Nous démontrons la tradition Levallois de l'assemblage par la présence de nucléus en‘tortues’ caractéristiques et d'éclats avec des plans de frappe à facettes. Le gravier porteur d'objets manufacturés était recouvert de >10 m de sédiments de prédominance à grains fins, comprenant des sables fossilifères et une énorme vase argileuse, ainsi que des limons/vases, des argiles et des sables peut-être originaires d'un estuaire. Nous attribuons ceux-ci à des dépôts dans des conditions tempérées au cours de OIS 7. Au sud, un gravier fluvial plus jeune, attribué à OIS 6, a été incisé dans la séquence interglaciaire. Le haut de la séquence de l'estuaire a été affecté par la pédogénèse, aussi bien avant qu'après son enfouissement sous du gravier érodé non fixé.

Zusammenfassung

Der Abfall von Levallois Steinbearbeitung unter den Seiten eines stillgelegten Straßenbahneinschnitts nach Lion Pit, West Thurrock, ·Essex ist seit dem frühen 20. Jahrhundert bekannt und registriert. Er befindet sich in der untersten Kiesschicht der Taplow/Mucking Formation, die ans Ende der Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage (MIS) 8 datiert. Die relativ ungestörte Beschaffenheit dieser Steinbear beitungsabfälle wird, obwohl feinere Abschläge, die wahrscheinlich ausgewaschen wurden, fehlen, durch das Auftreten von zusammensetzbarem Material bestätigt. Der Levallois Character des Inventars zeigt sich durch das Vorkommen von charakteristischen ,Schildkröten Kernen‘ und Abschlägen mit facettierten Schlagflächen. Der Kies, in dem die Artefakte lagen, wird von einer mehr als 10 m mächtigen, vorwiegend feinkörnigen Sedimentsschicht überlagert. Diese umfasst sowohl fossilienhaltigen Sand und massiven tonigen Schluff, als auch mehrschichtigen Schluff und Sand, der wahrscheinlich aus der Flussmündung stammt. Sie können einer Ablagerung unter gemäßigten Bedingungen während des MIS 7 zugewiesen werden. Südlich davon schneidet ein jüngerer Flusskies, der dem MIS 6 zugeordnet werden kann, in die interglaziale Sequenz. Das obere Ende des Flussmündungssequenz wurde durch die Bodenbildung vor und nach der Überdeckung durch einen ungelagerten Kies eines Schmutzflusses beeinträchtigt.

Résumen

Desechos de tallado pertenecientes a la técnica Levallois han aparecido bajo los lados de una sección ferroviaria en desuso conectada a Lion Pit, West Thurrock, en Essex. Este hallazgo, documentado por vez primera a principios del s. XX, aparece en la gravilla basal de la Formación Taplow/Mucking, datada al final de la Etapa de Isótopos de Oxígeno Marinos (MIS) 8. La naturaleza relativamente in situ de estos desechos de tallado queda confirmada por la presencia de material que puede ser recompuesto, aunque no hay restos del debitage más fino, posiblemente por haber sido eliminado. La pertenencia del alijo al Levallois queda demostrada por la frecuente aparición de los típicos núcleos de ‘caparazón de tortuga‘ y lascas con puntos de percusión facetados. La grava que contiene los artefactos yace bajo >10 m de sedimentos predominantemente finos, que incluyen arenas ricas en fósiles y un masivo depósito arcilloso, así como légamos laminados, arcillas, y arenas de origen posiblemente estuario. Estos se atribuyen a una deposición en condiciones templadas durante MIS 7. Hacia el sur de este depósito queda una grava fluvial más reciente, atribuida al MIS 6, que ha sido cortada dentro de la secuencia interglacial. La parte superior de la secuencia estuaria ha sido afectada por procesos de pedogénesis, tanto antes como después de su enterramiento por una grava de soliflucción no estratificada.

Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society , Volume 72 , 2006 , pp. 21 - 52
Copyright
Copyright © The Prehistoric Society 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbott, W.J.L. 1890. Notes on some Pleistocene sections in and near London. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 11, 473–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adamenko, O.M. & Gladiline, E.V. 1989. Korolevo, un des plus anciens habitats Acheuliéens et Moustériens de Transcarpatie Soviétique. L'Anthropologie 93(4), 689–712Google Scholar
Adams, A.L. 1877–1881. Monograph of the British Fossil Elephants. London: Palaeontographical SocietyCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashton, N.M. & Lewis, S.G. 2002. Deserted Britain: declining populations in the British late Middle Pleistocene. Antiquity 76, 388–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashton, N., Jacobi, R & White, M. 2003. The dating of Levallois sites in west London. Quaternary Newsletter 99, 25–32Google Scholar
Avery, B.W. 1980. Soil classification for England and Wales (Higher Categories). Harpenden: Soil Survey Technical Monograph 14Google Scholar
Avery, B.W. 1985. Argillic horizons and their significance in England and Wales. In Boardman, J. (ed.), Soils and Quaternary Landscape Evolution, 69–86. Chichester: WileyGoogle Scholar
Baumann, W. & Mania, D. 1983. Die Paläolithischen Neufunde von Markkleebera bei Leibzig. Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der WissenschaftenGoogle Scholar
Bietti, A & Grimaldi, S. 1995. Levallois debitage in Central Italy: technical achievements and raw material procurement. In Dibble, & Bar-Yosef, (eds) 1997, 25–142Google Scholar
Boëda, E. 1986. Approche téchnologique du concept Levallois et évaluation de son champ d'application. Thèse de IIIème Cycle, Université de ParisGoogle Scholar
Boëda, E. 1995. Levallois: a volumetric construction, methods, a technique. In Dibble, & Bar-Yosef, (eds) 1995, 41–67Google Scholar
Boëda, E., Geneste, J.-M. & Meignen, L. 1990. Identification de chaines opératoires lithiques du Paléolithique Ancien et Moyen. Paléo 2, 43–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowen, D.Q. (ed.). 1999. A Revised Correlation of Quaternary Deposits in the British Isles. London: Geological Society of London Special Report 23CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowen, D.Q., Hughes, S., Sykes, G.A. & Miller, G.M. 1989. Land-sea correlations in the Pleistocene based on isoleucine epimerization in non-marine molluscs. Nature 340, 49–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowen, D.Q., Sykes, G.A., Maddy, D., Bridgland, D.R. & Lewis, S.G. 1995. Aminostratigraphy and amino acid geochronology of English lowland valleys: the Lower Thames in context. In Bridgland, et al. (eds) 1995, 61–3Google Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. 1985. Pleistocene sites in the Thames Avon system. Earth Science Conservation 22, 36–9Google Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. 1988. The Pleistocene fluvial stratigraphy and palaeogeography of Essex. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 99(4), 291–314CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. 1994. Quaternary of the Thames. London: Chapman & HallCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. 1995. The Quaternary sequence of the eastern Thames basin: problems of correlation. In Bridgland, et al. (eds) 1995, 35–52Google Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. 1996. Quaternary river terrace deposits as a framework for the Lower Palaeolithic record. In Gamble, C. & Lawson, A, The English Palaeolithic Reviewed, 23–39. Salisbury: Trust for Wessex ArchaeologyGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. 1998. The Pleistocene history and early human occupation of the River Thames valley. In Ashton, N., Healey, E & Pettitt, P. (eds), Stone Age Archaeology. Essays in Honour of John Wymer, 29–37. Oxford: Oxbow Monograph 102Google Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. 2000. River terrace systems in north-west Europe: an archive of environmental change, uplift and early human occupation. Quaternary Science Reviews 19, 1293–303CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. 2003. The evolution of the River Medway, SE England, in the context of Quaternary palaeoclimate and the Palaeolithic occupation of NW Europe. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 114, 23–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. & Allen, P. 1996. A revised model for terrace formation and its significance for the lower Middle Pleistocene Thames terrace aggradations of north-east Essex, U.K. In Turner, C. (ed.), The Early Middle Pleistocene in Europe, 121–34. Rotterdam: BalkemaGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. & Harding, P. 1993. Middle Pleistocene deposits at Globe Pit, Little Thurrock, and their contained Clactonian industry. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 104, 263–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. & Harding, P. 1994. Lion Pit tramway cutting (West Thurrock; TQ 598783). In Bridgland, D.R.Quaternary of the Thames, 237–51. London: Chapman & Hall, Geological Conservation Review Series, Joint Nature Conservation CommitteeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. & Harding, P. 1995. Lion Pit Tramway Cutting (West Thurrock; TQ 598783). In Bridgland, D.R., Allen, P. & Haggart, B.A. (eds.), The Quaternary of the Lower Reaches of the Thames, 217–29. Durham: Field Guide, Quaternary Research AssociationGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R. & Maddy, D. 1995. River Terraces as records of Quaternary Climate Oscillation. Programme with Abstracts, 37. Berlin: INQUA 14Google Scholar
Bridgland, D.R., Allen, P. & Haggart, B.A. (eds). 1995. The Quaternary of the Lower Reaches of the Thames. Durham: Quaternary Research Association Field GuideGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R., Schreve, D.C., Keen, D.H. & White, M.J. 1998. Quaterary drainage of the Kentish Stour. In Murton, J.B., Whiteman, C.A., Bates, M.R., Bridgland, D.R., Long, A.J., Roberts, M.B. & Waller, M.P (eds), The Quaternary of Kent & Sussex, 39–54. London: Quaternary Research Association Field GuideGoogle Scholar
Bridgland, D.R., Schreve, D.C., Allen, P. & Keen, D.H. 2003. Key Middle Pleistocene localities of the Lower Thames: site conservation issues, recent research and report of a Geologists' Association excursion, 8th July, 2000. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 114, 211–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bromehead, C.E.N. 1912. On diversions of the Bourne near Chertsey. Summary of Progress, Geological Survey of Great Britain for 1911, 74–7Google Scholar
Buckingham, C., Roe, D. & Scott, K. 1996. A preliminary report on the Stanton Harcourt Channel Deposits (Oxfordshire, England): geological context, vertebrate remains and palaeolithic stone artefacts. Journal of Quaternary Science 11, 397–4153.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burchell, J.P.T. 1933. The Northfleet 50 ft. submergence later than the Coombe Rock of the post-Early Mousterian times. Archaeologia 83, 67–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carreck, J.N. 1972. Chronology of the Quaternary Deposits of south-east England, with Special Reference their Vertebrate Faunas. Unpublished M.Phil, thesis, University of London.Google Scholar
Carreck, J.N. 1976. Pleistocene mammalian and molluscan remains from ‘Taplow’ Terrace deposits at West Thurrock, near Grays, Essex. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 87, 83–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandler, R.H. 1916. The implements and cores of Crayford. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of Eas Anglia 2, 240–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chazan, M. 1997. Redefining Levallois. Journal of Human Evolution 33, 719–35CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clayton, F.M. 1996. Palaeo-argillic Soils in South-eas England. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of LondonGoogle Scholar
Conway, B., McNabb, J. & Ashton, N. (1996). Excavations at Barnfield Pit, Swanscombe, 1968–72. London: British Museum Occasional Paper 94Google Scholar
Currant, A.P. & Jacobi, R.M. 2001. A formal mammalian biostratigraphy for the Late Pleistocene of Britain. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 1707–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, W. 1874. Catalogue of the Pleistocene Vertebrata from the Neighbourhood of Ilford, Essex, in the Collection of Sir Antonio Brady. London: printed for private circulationGoogle Scholar
Dewey, H. 1932. The Palaeolithic deposits of the Lower Thames Valley. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 88, 35–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewey, H., Bromehead, C.E.N., Chatwin, C.P. & Dines, H.G. 1924. The Geology of the Country around Hartford. London: Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great BritainGoogle Scholar
Dibble, H. 1995. Biache-Saint-Vaast, Level IIa: a comparison of approaches. In Dibble, & Bar-Yosef, (eds) 1995, 93–116Google Scholar
Dibble, H.L & Bar-Yosef, O. (eds). 1995. The Definition and Interpretation of Levallois Technology, Madison: Prehistory Press. Monographs in World Archaeology 23Google Scholar
Dibley, G.E. & Kennard, A.S. 1916. Excursion to Grays. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 27, 103–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dines, H.G. & Edmunds, F.H. 1925. The Geology of the Country around Romford. London: Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great BritainGoogle Scholar
Falconer, H., in Murchison, C. (ed.). 1868. Palaeontological Memoirs and Notes of the late Hugh Falconer. Volume II. London: HardwickeGoogle Scholar
Gibbard, P.L. 1985. The Pleistocene History of the Middle Thames Valley. Cambridge: University PressGoogle Scholar
Gibbard, P.L. 1994. Pleistocene History of the Lower Thames Valley. Cambridge: University PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibbard, P.L. 1995. Palaeogeographical evolution of the Lower Thames Valley. In Bridgland, et al. (eds) 1995, 5–34Google Scholar
Gibbard, P.L. 1999. The Thames valley, its tributary, valleys and their former courses. In Bowen, (ed.) 1999, 45–58Google Scholar
Gibbard, P.L., Whiteman, C.A. & Bridgland, D.R. 1988. A preliminary report on the stratigraphy of the Lower Thames valley. Quaternary Newsletter 56, 1–8Google Scholar
Green, H.S. 1984. Pontnewydd Cave. A Lower Palaeolithic Hominid Site in Wales: the first report. Cardiff: National Museum of WalesGoogle Scholar
Guette, C. 2002. Révision critique du concept de débitage Levallois à travers l'étude du gisement Moustérien de Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue/le Fort (chantiers I-III et II, niveaux inférieurs) (Manche, France). Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 99(2) 238–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, R.L. 1965. Hydrolysis of proteins. Advances in Protein Chemistry 20, 37–107CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinton, M.A.C. 1901. Excursion to Grays Thurrock. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 17, 141–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinton, M.A.C. 1910. A preliminary account of the British voles and lemmings; with some remarks on the Pleistocene climate and geography. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 21, 489–507CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinton, M.A.C. & Kennard, A.S. 1900. Contributions to the Pleistocene geology of the Thames Valley, I. The Grays Thurrock area, part 1. Essex Naturalist 11, 336–70Google Scholar
Hollin, J.T. 1977. Thames interglacial sites, Ipswichian sea levels and Antarctic ice surges. Boreas 6, 33–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollin, J.T. 1996. Review Essay. Arctic and Alpine Research 28, 529–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaubert, J. & Farizy, C. 1995. Levallois debitage: exclusivity, absence or co-existence with other operative schemes (Garonne Basin, SW France). In Dibble, & Bar-Yosef, (eds) 1995, 227–48Google Scholar
Kaufman, D.S. & Manley, W.F. 1998. A new procedure for determining DL amino acid ratios in fossils using reverse phase liquid chromatography. Quaternary Science Reviews 17, 987–1000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keen, D.H. 1990. Significance of the record provided by Pleistocene fluvial deposits and their included molluscan faunas for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction and stratigraphy: case studies from the English Midlands. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 80, 25–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keen, D.H. 2001. Towards a late Middle Pleistocene non-marine molluscan biostratigraphy for the British Isles. Quaternary Science Revieivs 20, 1657–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemp, R.A. 1987. The interpretation and environmental significance of a buried Middle Pleistocene soil near Ipswich Airport, Suffolk, England. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B 317, 365–91Google Scholar
Kennard, A.S. 1916. The Pleistocene succession in England. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia 2, 249–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennard, A.S. 1944. The Crayford Brickearths. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 55, 121–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerney, M.P. 1999. Atlas of the Land and Freshwater Molluscs of Britain and Ireland. Colchester: HarleyCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Layard, N.F. 1912. Animal remains from the Railway Cutting at Ipswich. Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology and Natural History 14, 59–68Google Scholar
Lister, A.M. & Sher, A.V. 2001. The Origin and Evolution of the Woolly Mammoth. Science 294, 1094–7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCarroll, D. 2002. Amino-acid geochronology and the British Pleistocene: secure stratigraphical framework or a case of circular reasoning? Journal of Quaternary Science 17, 647–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meijer, T. & Preece, R.C. 2000. A review of the occurrence of Corbicula in the Pleistocene of north-west Europe. Geologie en Mijnbouw 79, 241–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G.H., Hollin, J.T. & Andrews, J. 1979. Aminostratigraphy of UK Pleistocene deposits. Nature 281, 539–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, G.F., Penny, L.F., Shotton, F.W. & West, R.G. (1973). A Correlation of Quaternary Deposits in the British Isles. London: Geological Society of London Special Report 4Google Scholar
Moir, J.R. & Hopwood, A.T. 1939. Excavations at Brundon, Suffolk (1935–37). Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 5, 1–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moncel, M-H. & Combier, J. 1992. L'outillage sur éclat dans l'industrie lithique du site Pléistocène moyen d'Orgnac 3 (Ardèche, France). L'Anthropologie 96, 5–48Google Scholar
Morris, J. 1836. On a freshwater deposit containing mammalian remains, recently discovered at Grays, Essex. Magazine of Natural History Series 1(9), 261–4Google Scholar
Murton, J.B., Baker, A., Bowen, D.Q., Caseldine, C.J., Coope, G.R., Currant, A.P., Evans, J.G., Field, M.H., Green, C.P., Hatton, J., Ito, M., Jones, R.L., Keen, D.H., Kerney, M.P., McEwan, R., McGregor, D.E.M., Parish, D., Schreve, D.C., Smart, P.L. & York, L.L. 2001. A late Middle Pleistocene temperate-periglacial-temperate sequence (Oxygen Isotope Stages 7–5e) near Marsworth, Buckinghamshire, UK. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 1787–1825CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ovey, C.D. (ed.). 1964. The Swanscombe skull. A Survey of Research on a Pleistocene site. London: Royal Anthropological Institute Occasional Paper 20Google Scholar
Palmer, S. 1975. A Palaeolithic site at North Road, Purfleet, Essex. Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society 7, 1–13Google Scholar
Parkin, R. A., Rowley-Conwy, P. & Serjeantson, D. 1986. Late Palaeolithic exploitation of horse and red deer at Gough's Cave, Cheddar Somerset. Proceedings of the University of Bristol Spelaeological Society 17, 311–30Google Scholar
Penkman, K.E.H. 2005. Amino Acid Geochronology: a closed system approach to test and refine the UK model. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of NewcastleGoogle Scholar
Preece, R.C. 1999. Mollusca from last interglacial fluvial deposits of the River Thames at Trafalgar Square, London. Journal of Quaternary Science 14, 77–893.0.CO;2-U>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, M.B & Parfitt, S.A. 1999. Boxgrove: a Middle Pleistocene hominid site at Eartham Quarry, Boxgrove, West Sussex. London: English HeritageGoogle Scholar
Roe, D.A. 1981. The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic Periods in Britain. London: Routledge & Kegan PaulGoogle Scholar
Roebroeks, W., De Loecker, D., Hennekens, P. & Iperan, M. van. 1993. On the archaeology of the Maastricht-Belvedérè pit. Mededelingen Rijks Geologishe Dienst 47, 69–80Google Scholar
Salvador, A. 1994. International Stratigraphic Guide. A Guide to Stratigraphic Classification, Terminology, and Procedure. The International Union of Geological Sciences and the Geological Society of America (2nd edition)Google Scholar
Sandford, K.S. 1924. The river gravels of the Oxford district. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 80, 113–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schick, K. 1986. Stone Age Sites in the Making: experiments in the formation and transformation of archaeological occurrences. Oxford: British Archaeological Report S314CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schreve, D.C. 1997. Mammalian Biostratigraphy of the Later Middle Pleistocene in Britain. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of LondonGoogle Scholar
Schreve, D.C. 2001. Differentiation of the British late Middle Pleistocene interglacials: the evidence from mammalian biostratigraphy. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 1693–1705CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schreve, D.C., Bridgland, D.R., Allen, P., Blackford, J.J., Gleed-Owen, C.P., Griffiths, H.I., Keen, D.H. & White, M.J. 2002. Sedimentology, palaeontology and archaeology of late Middle Pleistocene River Thames terrace deposits at Purfleet, Essex, UK. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 1423–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shotton, F.W. 1983. United Kingdom contribution to the I.G.C.P.; Project 24, Quaternary Glaciations of the Northern Hemisphere. Interglacials after the Hoxnian in Britain. Report by a working group chaired by Professor F.W. Shotton. Quaternary Newsletter 39, 19–25Google Scholar
Smith, R.A. 1911. A Palaeolithic industry at Northfleet, Kent. Archaeologia 62, 515–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R.A. 1923. Prehistoric Man in Kent. South East Naturalist 28, 32–7Google Scholar
Spurrell, F.J.C. 1880. On the discovery of the place where Palaeolithic implements were made at Crayford. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 36, 544–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuart, A.J. 1976. The history of the mammal fauna during the Ipswichian/Last interglacial in England. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 276, 221–50Google Scholar
Stuart, A.J. 1982. Pleistocene Vertebrates in the British Isle. London & New York: LongmanGoogle Scholar
Sutcliffe, A.J. 1975. A hazard in the interpretation of glacial-interglacial sequences. Quaternary Newsletter 17, 1–3Google Scholar
Sutcliffe, A.J. 1976. Reply to R.G. West on ‘The British Glacial-interglacial Sequence’. Quaternary Newsletter 18, 1–7Google Scholar
Sutcliffe, A.J. 1995. Insularity of the British Isles 250 000–30 000 years ago: the mammalian, including human, evidence. In Preece, R.C. (ed.), Island Britain: a Quaternary perspective. London: Geological Society Special Publication 96, 127–40Google Scholar
Svoboda, J. 1989. Middle Pleistocene adaptation in central Europe. Journal of World Prehistory 3, 33–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Texier, P-J. & Fransciso-Ortega, I. 1995. Main technological and typological characteristics of the lithic assemblage from Level 1 at Bérigoule (Murs-Vaucluse). In Dibble, & Bar-Yosef, (eds) 1995, 213–26Google Scholar
Tuffreau, A. 1982. The transition Lower/Middle Palaeolithic in Northern France. In Ronen, A. (ed.), The Transition from Lower to Middle Palaeolithic and the Origin of Modern Man, 137–49. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports S151Google Scholar
Tuffreau, A. 1995. The variability of Levallois technology in northern France and neighbouring areas. In Dibble, & Bar-Yosef, (eds) 1995, 413–27Google Scholar
Turner, H., Kuiper, J.G.J., Thew, N., Bernasconi, R., Rüetschi, J., Wüthrich, M. & Gosteli, M. 1998. Atlas der Mollusken der Schweiz und Liechtensteins. Neuchâtel: Fauna Helvetica 2/Centre suisse de cartographie de la fauneGoogle Scholar
Van Peer, P. 1992. The Levallois Reduction Strategy. Madison: Prehistory PressGoogle Scholar
Villa, P. 1982. Conjoinable pieces and site formation processes. American Antiquity 47, 276–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, S.H. 1923a. The Elephas-antiquus bed of Clactonon-Sea (Essex) and its flora and fauna. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 79, 606–36Google Scholar
Warren, S.H. 1923b. The sub-soil flint flaking sites at Grays. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 34, 38–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, S.H. 1942. The drifts of south-western Essex. Parts I and II. Essex Naturalist 27, 154–79Google Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F.F. 1995. The Ebbsfleet Valley, Northfleet (Baker's Hole). In Bridgland, et al. (eds) 1995, 147–64Google Scholar
Wenban-Smith, F, Gamble., C.S. & Apsimon, A. 2000. The Lower Palaeolithic site at Red Barns, Porchester, Hampshire: bifacial technology, raw material quality, and the organisation of archaic behaviour. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 66, 209–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, R.G. 1969. Pollen analyses from interglacial deposits at Aveley and Grays, Essex. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 80, 271–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, R.G., Lambert, C.A. & Sparks, B.W. 1964. Interglacial deposits at Ilford, Essex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 247, 185–212Google Scholar
Wheeler, A., 1969. The Fishes of the British Isles and North West Europe. London: MacmillanGoogle Scholar
Whitaker, W. 1889. The Geology of London and Parts of the Thames Valley. Volume 1. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. London: H.M.S.O.Google Scholar
White, M.J & Ashton, N.M. 2003. Lower Palaeolithic core technology and the origins of the Levallois method in NW Europe. Current Anthropology 44, 598–610CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, M.J. & Jacobi, R.M. 2002. Two sides to every story: bout coupe handaxes revisited. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 21, 109–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodward, B.B. 1890. On the Pleistocene (non-marine) Mollusca of the London District. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 11, 335–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wymer, J.J. 1968. Lower Palaeolithic Archaeology in Britain, as represented by the Thames Valley. London: John BakerGoogle Scholar
Wymer, J.J. 1985. The Palaeolithic Sites of East Anglia. Norwich: GeobooksGoogle Scholar
Wymer, J.J. 1999. The Lower Palaeolithic Occupation of Britain. Salisbury: Trust for Wessex ArchaeologyGoogle Scholar