^{page 194 note 1} Jessen, Knud and Helbaek, Hans, Cereals in Great Britain and Ireland in Prehistoric and Early Historic Times. (Kgl. Dan. Vidensk. Selsk. Biol. Skrifter, 1944)Google Scholar. (Here referred to as Cereals).

^{page 196 note 1} The writer is particularly grateful to Mr Alexander Keiller for permission to examine the Windmill Hill collection, as well as for permission to take listed specimens back to Denmark for close study and photography.

^{page 197 note 1} Cereals, p. 31.

^{page 197 note 2} Helbaek, Hans, ‘Archaeology and Agricultural Botany,’ Ann. Rep. of the London Univ. Archaeol. Inst, 1953, 44–59Google Scholar.

^{page 197 note 3} Helbaek, loc. cit.

^{page 197 note 4} Unpublished investigation by Erling Johansen and Hans Helbaek.

^{page 197 note 5} Unpublished investigation by Hans Helbaek. Also Winther, J., Lindø, 1926Google Scholar: Troldebjerg, 1935; Blandebjerg, 1943.

^{page 198 note 1} In the site at Bundsø the wheat-barley rate was 91—9 per cent in 565 impressions, and seven apple pips were identified. In this case, however, Eincorn seems to have played a more important rôle than in above-mentioned finds. See: Knud Jessen, ‘Trouvailles de blé,’ in Mathiassen, Therkel, ‘Bundsø. Une station de récent âge de la pierre dans l'île d'Als,’ Aarbøger, 1939. CopenhagenGoogle Scholar.

^{page 198 note 2} Jessen, Knud, ‘Planterester fra den ældre Jernalder i Thy’ (Botanisk Tidsskrift. Bd. 42, Copenhagen, 1933Google Scholar. (German summary). Helbaek, Hans, ‘Seeds of Weeds as Food in the pre-Roman Iron Age,’ Kuml., Aarhus, 1951Google Scholar.

^{page 198 note 3} Helbaek, , Ann. Rep. Lond. Univ. Inst. Arch., 1953Google Scholar.

^{page 199 note 1} See Cereals, p. 42.

^{page 199 note 2} Neuweiler, E., Die Prähistorischen Pflanzenreste Mitteleuropas (Bot. Exk. Pfl.-geogr. Stud. Schweiz), 1905, 66Google Scholar.

^{page 199 note 3} see Fig. 8, p. 205 and Cereals, p. 56 ff.

^{page 199 note 4} Unpublished investigation by Hans Helbaek.

^{page 200 note 1} Heer, Oswald, ‘Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten,’ Mitt, antiq. Ges. Zürich, 1865Google Scholar. Wullfin, T.: Frödin, O. ‘En svensk pålbygnad från stenåldern,’ Fornvännen, (1910)Google Scholar. Helbaek, Hans, ‘Preserved Apples and Panicum in the Prehistoric Site at Norre Sandegaard in Bornholm,’ Acta Archaeologica. (1952)Google Scholar.

^{page 200 note 2} Helbaek, Hans, ‘Botanical Study of the stomach contents of the Tollund Man,’ Aarbøger, 1950, pp. 329–41Google Scholar.

^{page 201 note 1} Cereals, p. 10ff.

^{page 201 note 2} Jessen, , Bot. Tids. 42 (1933)Google Scholar and Aarbøger, 1939.

^{page 201 note 3} Further p. 216 ff. See Fig. 11, p. 216.

^{page 203 note 1} Triticum dicoccum v. farrum Bayle-Barelle.

^{page 205 note 1} Hatt, Gudmund, Landbrug i Danmarks Oldtid. 1937Google Scholar.

^{page 205 note 2} Rivers, Pitt, Excavations in Cranborne Chase, IV. 1898Google Scholar. Pl. 265.

^{page 205 note 3} The crude, hand-made vessel base containing the flax impressions did not come from the Early Iron Age mounds, but was found in the surface in a Roman context.

^{page 206 note 1} Helbaek, , Kuml, 1951Google Scholar.

^{page 207 note 1} A sample of carbonized grain from Theale, Berkshire, ascribed to the Late Bronze Age, and identified by John Percival as Bread wheat (T. vulgare) was kindly sent to the writer by the Museum and Art Gallery, Reading. (Piggott, C. M. ‘The Iron Age Pottery from Theale.’ Trans. Newbury Distr. Field Club, VIII (1938), 1Google Scholar). He identified one grain of Hulled barley and about 50 grains of Emmer, but no Bread wheat. On account of the ‘obscure conditions of its discovery’ the find was not included in our list. The alleged combination of grain and bones in the pot does not sound convincing.

^{page 207 note 2} The excavation at Itford Hill is being carried out by Mr G. P. Burstow and Mr G. A. Holleyman on behalf of The Brighton and Hove Archaeological Society. A brief note on the find was published by G. A. Holleyman in The Sussex County Magazine, May 1950, 171Google Scholar. The writer is grateful to the excavators for permission to publish his preliminary observations on the grain.

^{page 208 note 1} Percival, John, Wheat in Great Britain. Reading, 1934Google Scholar.

^{page 208 note 2} Neuweiler, E., ‘Die Pflanzenreste aus den Pfahlbauten am Alpenquai in Zürich und von Wollishofen,’ Mitt, bot. Mus. Univ. Zürich (1919)Google Scholar. Neuweiler, E., ‘Nachträge II urgeschichtlicher Pflanzen,’ Vierteljahrschr. Naturforsch. Ges. Zürich (1946)Google Scholar.

^{page 209 note 1} Samples of some of the finds mentioned below were sent to the writer for examination. For permission to publish the results he wishes to convey his thanks to: Mr J. R. B. Arthur and Mr George Cutler, of The Sussex Archaeological Society, who excavated the grain at Wickbourne Estate; Mr J. G. S. Brinson, of The Roman Essex Society, who excavated the grain at Rivenhall; Mr J. B. Calkin, Langton Matravers, who found the grain at Worth Matravers. Mr L. Biek, of the Ministry of Works, has been most helpful in arranging for the examination of several grain finds.

^{page 209 note 2} Information received from Mr G. A. Holleyman, Brighton.

^{page 209 note 3} see Cereals, p. 44.

^{page 209 note 4} Clark, J. G. D., Prehistoric Europe (1952), 108Google Scholar. Schiemann, E., Entstehung (1932), 162Google Scholar.

^{page 210 note 1} T. Wullf, op. cit., 1910.

^{page 210 note 2} E. Neuweiler, op. cit.

^{page 210 note 3} Bulleid, Arthur and Gray, H. St. George, The Glastonbury Lake Village, I–II, 1917Google Scholar.

^{page 210 note 4} Clay, R. C. C., ‘An Early Iron Age Site on Fifield Bavant Down,’ Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag., CXL (1924), 457Google Scholar.

^{page 210 note 5} R. H. Biffen. Report on the Cereals, ibid., p. 493–4. Pl. XV–XVIII.

^{page 211 note 1} Schiemann, E., ‘Entstehung der Kulturpflanzen,’ Handbuch der Vererbungswissenschaft (1932)Google Scholar; Gradmann, Robert, Der Getreidebau im deutschen und römischen Altertum (1909)Google Scholar.

^{page 211 note 2} Hatt, Gudmund, Landbrug i Danmarks Oldtid (1937)Google Scholar.

^{page 211 note 3} Perhaps a subsidiary possibility should be pointed out: while the Glume wheats must be dried artificially before they can be threshed, and Hulled barley may be cleaned more thoroughly if dried before threshing, Naked barley, like rye, drops its grains easily when mature. Thus drying would hardly ever be applied to this cereal and consequently its chances of being carbonized would seem more remote. However, this explanation presupposes the cultivation of Naked and Hulled barley in separate fields or plots, a practice of which we have no evidence for prehistoric Europe.

^{page 211 note 4} Hatt, Landbrug; Helbaek, Hans. Planteavl, . Aarb. Nord. Oldk. Hist. (1938), pp. 217, 221Google Scholar.

^{page 212 note 1} Reid, Clement in Bulleid, A. and Gray, H. St. G., Glastonbury, vol. II, pp. 625–30Google Scholar.

^{page 212 note 2} ibid.

^{page 212 note 3} Especially at Fifield Bavant.

^{page 212 note 4} Helbaek, H., ‘Botanical Studyof the stomach contents of the Tollund Man’, Aarbøger, 1950, pp. 329–41Google Scholar.

^{page 212 note 5} Hatt, G., Landbrug, 1937Google Scholar; Hans Helbaek, op. cit.

^{page 212 note 6} In Groningen the writer had the opportunity of examining a Bronze Age vessel from the Dordogne (1928 II–XII, 7124). In this many impressions of Panicum miliaceum L. were identified.

^{page 213 note 1} Unpublished investigation by Tessen and Helbaek.

^{page 213 note 2} ibid.

^{page 213 note 3} The writer did not himself find beans in his sample (c.2 litres), but according to report on the grain find from the Cereal Research Station, St. Albans (Dr V. V. C. Henton and Dr N. L. Kent) beans were present in other samples from the site. The Verulamium grain was sent to the writer by Mrs M. Aylwin Cotton, The University of London Institute of Archaeology. It was found among Roman building foundations, evidently burnt down about the middle of second century A.D.

^{page 214 note 1} R. Gradmann, Der Getreidebau,

^{page 214 note 2} cf., p. 43; K. Jessen, op. cit., 1939.

^{page 215 note 1} Hunter, Herbert, The Barley Crop (1952), 18Google Scholar.

^{page 216 note 1} Unpublished investigation by Ole Klindt-Jensen and H. Helbaek.

^{page 216 note 2} cf., Cereals, pp. 10–16.

^{page 217 note 1} Helbaek, H. ‘Spelt, Triticum spelta L., in Prehistoric Denmark,’ Acta Archaeologica, 1952Google Scholar, pl. 1, 2.

^{page 218 note 1} H. Helbaek, 1952, op. cit., pl. 1, 2.

^{page 219 note 1} H. Helbaek, 1952, op. cit., pl. 1, 3.

^{page 220 note 1} cf., Cereals, p. 48.

^{page 220 note 2} Unfortunately in Cereals, p. 45, the middle and lower row of caryopses in ‘k’ is listed as Wild oat. It should be Chess.

^{page 220 note 3} Buschan, Georg, Vorgeschichtliche Botanik (1895), p. 214Google Scholar; E. Neuweiler, op. cit., 1905.

^{page 221 note 1} The discussion of the history of weeds is based on the following works:

E. Neuweiler, op. cit. 1905 and 1919, also Pflanzenreste aus den Pfahlbauten vom Hausersee, Greifensee und Zürichsee (1925). Liste der Pflanzenreste aus dem Kälberhügel Vindonissa (1927); Die Pflanzenreste aus dem spätbronzezeitlichen Pfahlbau ‘Sumpf’ bet Zug (1931); and Nachträge I and II. Viert.-jahrschr. Naturforsch. Ges. Zürich (1935 and 1946).

Rytz, W., ‘Die Pflanzenwelt’, in Tschumi, O., Urgeschichte der Schweitz I, 1949Google Scholar.

Hegi, Gustav, Illustrierte Flora von Mitteleuropa, 1931Google Scholar.

Hatt, G., Landbrug i Danmarks Oldtid, 1937Google Scholar.

Knud Jessen, op. cit. 1933, 1939 and 1944; also ‘Iagttagelser over Plantevæksten,’ in Thomas Thomsen, Egekistefundet fra Egtved. French summary. (Nord. Fortidsm., II (1929), 4Google Scholar).

H. Helbaek, op. cit. 1938, 1950 and 1951; also (in press) The Botany of the Iron Age Vallhagar Field.

Reid, Clement (1917) in Glastonbury, Vol. II, pp. 625–30Google Scholar.

Clapham, A. R., Tutin, T. G. and Warburg, E. F., Flora of the British Isles (1952)Google Scholar.

Jessen, Knud and Lind, Jens, ‘Det Danske Markukrudts Historie,’ Kgl. Dan. Vid. Selsk. Biol. Skrft. III (1922), 2Google Scholar.

^{page 222 note 1} Kóstrzewski, Josef, Les Origines de la Civilization Polonaise (1949)Google Scholar.

^{page 222 note 2} Lauer, J.-P., Laurent-Täckholm, V., Åberg, E., ‘Les Plantes découvertes dans les souterrains de l'enceinte du Roi Zozer à Saqqarah,’ Bull. Inst. Egypte, 1950Google Scholar. (Identification of weeds, by V. Laurent-Täckholm).

^{page 222 note 3} Unpublished investigation by K. Jessen and H. Helbaek.

^{page 229 note 1} Grain found by Mr Cooper, Hill Farm, Gestingthorpe, Halstead, Essex.

^{page 230 note 1} Impression.

^{page 232 note 1} Caton-Thompson, G. and Gardner, E. W., The Desert Fayum. Vol. I (1934), p. 46 ff.Google Scholar

^{page 232 note 2} Percival, John, ‘Cereals of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.’ Nature. 1936Google Scholar.

^{page 232 note 3} R. H. Biffen, in The Desert Fayum.

^{page 232 note 4} Holleyman, G. A., ‘Bronze-Age Farmstead on Itford Hill,’ Sussex County Magazine, Vol. 24 (1950), p. 173Google Scholar.

^{page 232 note 5} K. Jessen, op. cit., 1933; Hatt, Gudmund, ‘Jernalders Bopladser i Himmerland’ (French summary). Aarbøger, 1938Google Scholar.

^{page 233 note 1} Grahame Clark points out that two spheres may be identified in which grain drying was practised, a southern, Mediterranean–continental, in which the purpose with the drying was to facilitate threshing, and a northern in which a short and wet summer did not suffice for the corn to ripen, and drying was necessary for making the grain keep. This is unquestionably correct, but in the writer's opinion we should regard southern England as a part of the southern sphere. The occurrence of Spelt shows that the climate cannot have been so wet and cold as to necessitate drying simply for storing purposes, and further the grain of our area is invariably fully ripe. The matter stands quite otherwise with reference to Scotland and the North Atlantic islands; that is the northern sphere. (Clark, J. G. D., Prehistoric Europe, 1952, p. 108Google Scholar).

^{page 233 note 2} In our day a special contrivance, a ‘Gerbegang’ (Gradmann 1909), is employed in threshing of the Glume wheats. The machine is not known beyond the central European districts where these species are grown.

^{page 233 note 3} ‘… in area exteruntur triticum et siligo et hordeum; sic et seruntur pura qualiter moluntur, quia tosta non sunt. e diverso far, milium, panicum purgari nisi tosta non possunt. itaque haec cum suis folliculis seruntur cruda. et far in vaginulis suis servant ad satus atque non torrent.’ (Pliny, , Natural History, Book XVIII, X, 61Google Scholar. Loeb Edition, 1950, pp. 228 and 229).

^{page 233 note 4} H. Helbaek, op. cit., 1952.