Poor nutritional care within the hospital setting continues despite decades of work chronicling and measuring the problems. To address the problem changes in practice have been attempted to improve the patients’ experience of mealtimes. In order to implement patient-centred mealtimes for older patients by changing the focus from institutional convenience to one that focuses on the requirements of the patients, an action research approach has been used that focuses on action and change, and thus appears to have much to offer those who seek to change practice. The present paper focuses on the first two phases in a three-phase approach. In phase one the nature of everyday mealtime care and the wider context are explored using focus groups, interviews and observations. The data fall into three main themes that all impact on patients’ experiences of mealtimes: institutional and organisational constraints; mealtime care and nursing priorities; eating environment. Following feedback of phase 1 findings to staff and identification of areas of concern a model of practice development was selected to guide the change process of the second phase. Changes to mealtime nursing practice and the ward environment have been made, indicating that action research has the potential to improve the mealtime care of patients.

The rapid development of new concepts and tools has led to a change in the way in which researchers carry out nutrition-related research. Obesity is determined by the interaction between predisposing genetic and environmental aspects, but at present the gene–gene and gene–environment interactions contributing to the development of this complex disease cannot be analysed in detail. The purpose of the present paper is to provide some examples of the knowledge that is available in the field of obesity genetics, and also the new strategies being developed that are aimed at studying the relative contribution of numerous genes to obesity and their responses to environmental changes. In the rare cases of monogenic obesities in which a major gene is the cause the molecular approach has proved extremely powerful in the identification of the genes responsible and in defining new syndromes. However, in the common forms of obesity (polygenic obesity) most studies have analysed genotype–phenotype associations without sometimes taking into account the influence of environmental factors (diet, sedentary lifestyle). Among the aspects limiting this integrated approach to obesity are the difficulty of having large enough samples and the expansion of biocomputing tools developed for accessing the question of multiple interactions with no a priori hypotheses. This picture is rapidly changing. Large databases of clinical data and DNA and biological sample banks with more precise environmental information and patient phenotypes are being compiled. The capacity for studying multiple genes simultaneously at the DNA or RNA levels is also possible. Finally, the tremendous progress in biocomputing will allow the integration of these different types of data (relating to environment, phenotype, genotype, gene expression) and will improve the ability to deal with this complex disease.

At present the only cure for food allergy is to avoid eating the food responsible for the allergy. Thus, food allergy or food hypersensitivity is a disease that is not only of concern to the individual who is affected but also to those involved directly and indirectly in supplying andpreparing food for the food-allergic individual, and its impact on society should be evaluated on this basis. It is generally assumed that questionnaire-based studies vastly overestimate the prevalence of food hypersensitivity. The reported perceived prevalence of food hypersensitivity varies from 3.24% to 34.9%, which may be explained partly by the difference in reporting lifetime prevalence compared with point prevalence. However, of more importance is the apparent inverse correlation between response rate and prevalence (the higher the response rate, the lower the perceived prevalence). The three most-recent prevalence studies on food hypersensitivity (one on perceived food hypersensitivity and two on confirmed food hypersensitivity) all report estimates for prevalence of approximately 3%, but their criteria for including subjects as being positive are not identical, although they do overlap. Furthermore, because of differences in methodology there is no definitive information to indicate whether the prevalence of food allergy is increasing. However, the high prevalence of pollen-related food allergy in younger adults in the population suggests that the increase in pollen allergy is also being accompanied by an increase in pollen-related food allergy.

Cost-effective prevention strategies to prevent weight gain and the development of obesity should be based on appropriate knowledge of the determinants of weight gain. The body of evidence on the dietary determinants of weight gain is, however, fragmentary at best, partly because inappropriate research methods are used to study the determinants of obesity under normal circumstances. Evidence from studies using experimental diets have shortcomings because of their short duration and selection of highly-motivated subjects and because the outcomes can be easily influenced by the choice of foods to be used in the intervention. Of the observational studies, many have severe methodological shortcomings, e.g. ecological studies, cross-sectional surveys and classical cohort studies in which the baseline diet is linked to subsequent weight development over long periods of time. Longitudinal studies with repeated measurements in which changes in diet and physical activity are linked to changes in weight are probably the most informative, but these studies are relatively rare. There is a great interest in interventions that are effective and efficient for the prevention of obesity. Many countries and research funding agencies seem to show a strong tendency to develop interventions for children and adolescents exclusively. It can be easily shown, however, that intervention programmes are much more likely to be cost-effective in older adults than in children, which indicates that adults should not be neglected as target populations for obesity prevention. Obesity prevention should follow a life-course approach, as currently recommended for non-communicable diseases in general by the WHO.

In order to determine whether surrogate markers predict clinical outcome, randomized controlled trials (RCT) of nutrition support v. no nutrition support that have reported at least one clinical outcome (mortality, infections, total complications, or duration of hospitalization) and at least one nutritional outcome (energy or protein intake, weight gain, N balance, albumin, prealbumin, transferrin, three anthropometric measures, skin testing, lymphocyte count) were assessed for concordance. If changes in nutritional markers predict clinical outcome, changes in both outcomes should go in the same direction. Concordance is defined as both outcomes changing in the same direction or both outcomes showing no difference. Discordance is defined as one outcome changing and the other not (partial) or both outcomes changing in opposite directions (complete). Ninety-nine RCT were identified, of which most were underpowered to see statistically significant changes, especially in clinical outcomes. Thus, the results were analysed only in relation to the direction of the respective changes in outcomes. Forty-eight comparisons (4×12) were made. The rates of concordance were ≤50% in forty-one of forty-eight comparisons; the rate was never >75%. A complete discordance rate of ≥25% was present in forty-three (≥50% in thirteen) of the forty-eight comparisons. The discordance was usually a result of the nutritional outcome being better than the clinical outcome. Changes in nutritional markers do not predict clinical outcomes. Before adopting any surrogate marker as an end point for a clinical trial, it has to be known that improving it will result in patient benefit.

A number of epidemiological studies worldwide have demonstrated a relationship between poor early growth and an increased susceptibility to insulin resistance, visceral obesity, type 2 diabetes and other features of the metabolic syndrome in adulthood. However, the mechanistic basis of this relationship and the relative roles of genes and the environment remain a subject of debate. The ‘thrifty phenotype’ hypothesis proposes that poor fetal nutrition leads to programming of metabolism and an adult phenotype that is adapted to poor but not plentiful nutrition. The maternal reduced-protein rat model has been used to examine the importance of the maternal environment in determining susceptibility to adult disease. Pregnant and lactating rat dams are fed a diet containing 80 g protein/kg as compared with 200 g protein/kg, which leads to growth restriction in utero. Offspring of low-protein dams have increased susceptibility to diabetes, insulin resistance and hypertension when fed a palatable high-fat diet that promotes obesity. Administration of leptin during pregnancy and lactation to these protein-restricted dams produces offspring that have increased metabolic rate and do not become obese or insulin resistant when fed on a high-fat diet. Increased glucocorticoid exposure, particularly during late gestation, has been linked with insulin resistance in adulthood. High levels of fetal glucocorticoids may result from a decreased activity of placental 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD) type 2, which normally protects the fetus from high maternal glucocorticoid levels. Leptin administration to protein-restricted dams inhibits the suppression of 11β-HSD-2 and may be one mechanism by which the metabolic syndrome is prevented.

Exposure assessment is one of the key parts of the risk assessment process. This task is crucial when evaluating substances for which only intake of toxicologically-important amounts can lead to adverse health effects. Ideally, dietary exposure to hazardous substances can be assessed by combining data on concentration in all food products with data on their consumption. However, it is considered to be neither cost-effective nor necessary to collect detailed data for every substance, and a stepwise procedure is commonly used to focus resources on the most important issues. Screening methods, designed to look for ‘worst case’ situations, are first used to target chemicals that might be of health concern for the general population or for certain at-risk groups. The quality of the dietary exposure assessments not only depends on the quality of the data collected, but also on the integration tools used for initial screening or for the eventual more precise estimations. A particular challenge is the evaluation of food allergens and components causing other forms of intolerances, since no reliable data seem to be currently available on the type of exposure (amounts and duration) required to induce a food allergy. A different approach from that used for dietary exposure to other hazardous substances has to be adopted. However, the methodologies (such as those used to collect food consumption data) and databases (in particular, information about food labels) developed in such a context could be useful to investigate the exposure conditions leading to the development of food allergies.

Obesity is a risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes and CVD. Is adipose tissue the culprit in the relationship between obesity and metabolic disease? It iscertainly possible to argue that adipose tissue function is disturbed in obesity in sucha way that adverse consequences may follow. For instance, lipolysis is down regulated, the sensitivity of lipolysis to insulin is reduced and there are disturbances in the regulation of adipose tissue blood flow. However, when examined critically these changes canbe seen as adaptations to the increased adipose tissue mass, making the situation betterrather than worse. In terms of the many peptide and other factors now known to be secreted from adipose tissue, it is easier to argue that adipose tissue is the culprit. However, for no single ‘adipokine’ is there as yet unequivocal evidence of a link between adipose tissue secretion and adverse metabolic events in other tissues. The bestdocumented of these adipokines in relation to insulin resistance is adiponectin. Here, unusually, adiponectin confers insulin sensitivity, and its secretion is down regulated in obesity. It could be again that adipose tissue has down regulated its function in an attempt to compensate for itsincreased mass, although certainly that down-regulation is too extreme. On balance, it is clear that adipose tissue is a link in the chain of events leading to metabolic disease, but in many respects it is an innocent intermediary trying to deal with the consequences of positive energy balance, the real culprit.

With the beginning of this millennium it has become fashionable to only follow ‘evidence-based’ practices. This generally-accepted approach cruelly negates experience or intelligent interpretation of pathophysiology. Another problem is that the great ‘meta-analysts’ of the present era only accept end points that they consider ‘hard’. In the metabolic and nutritional field these end points are infection-related morbidity and mortality, and all other end points are considered ‘surrogate’. The aim of this presentation is to prove that this claim greatly negates the contribution of more-fundamentally-oriented research, the fact that mortality has multifactorial causes, and that infection is a crude measure of immune function. The following problems should be considered: many populations undergoing intervention have low mortality, requiring studies with thousands of patients to demonstrate effects of intervention on mortality; nutrition is only in rare cases primary treatment, and in many populations is a prerequisite for survival rather than a therapeutic modality; once the effect of nutritional support is achieved, the extra benefit of modulation of the nutritional support regimen can only be modest; cost–benefit is not a valid end point, because the better it is done the more it will cost; morbidity and mortality are crude end points for the effect of nutritional intervention, and are influenced by many factors. In fact, it is a yes or no factor. In the literature the most important contributions include new insights into the pathogenesis of disease, the diminution of disease-related adverse events and/or functional improvement after therapy. In nutrition research the negligence of these end points has precluded the development and validation of functional end points, such as muscle, immune and cognitive functions. Disability, quality of life, morbidity and mortality are directly related to these functional variables. It is, therefore, of paramount importance to validate functional end points and to consider them as primary rather than surrogate end points.

Few researchers would dispute that the pandemic of obesity is caused by a profound mismatch between humanity's present environmental circumstances and those that have moulded evolutionary selection. This concept was first articulated when gestational diabetes was described as being the result of a ‘thrifty genotype rendered detrimental by progress’. More recently, this hypothesis has been extended to the concept of a ‘thrifty phenotype’ to describe the metabolic adaptations adopted as a survival strategy by a malnourished fetus; changes that may also be inappropriate to deal with a later life of affluence. Both the thrifty genotype and the thrifty phenotype hypotheses would predict that populations in some areas of the developing world would be at greater risk of obesity and its co-morbidities; a proposition to be explored in the present paper. To date thrifty genes remain little more than a nebulous concept propagated by the intuitive logic that man has been selected to survive episodic famine and seasonal hungry periods. Under such conditions those individuals who could lay down extra energy stores and use them most efficiently would have a survival advantage. The search for candidate thrifty genes needs to cover every aspect of human energy balance from food-seeking behaviour to the coupling efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation. The present paper will describe examples of attempts to find thrifty genes in three selected candidate areas: maternally-transmitted mitochondrial genes; the uncoupling proteins; apoE4, whose geographical distribution has been linked to a possible thrifty role in lipoprotein and cholesterol metabolism.

There is considerable interest in the development and evaluation of approaches for the safety assessment of novel foods, and in particular in methods for characterisation of allergenic potential. One strategy that has found favour is a tiered approach in which the potential of novel proteins to induce allergic sensitisation is assessed based on considerations of stability of the protein in a simulated gastric juice and homology with, or structural similarity to, known allergens. Linked to such an approach may be evaluation of serological identity with proteins known to cause allergic disease. With the aim of supplementing such approaches with a more direct measurement of potential allergenic activity, attempts have been made to characterise the quality of immune responses elicited in BALB/c strain mice. Such evaluations comprise measurement of IgG and IgE antibody production and (to a lesser extent) of induced cytokine expression patterns. Investigations to date suggest that in mice proteins provoke variable immune responses, those with the potential to cause allergic sensitisation stimulating IgE (and IgG) antibody production. In contrast, non-allergenic, but nevertheless immunogenic, proteins are associated with IgG antibody responses in the absence of marked IgE production. Consistent with the selective activation of selective type 2 T lymphocyte responses, exposure of mice to allergenic protein is associated with preferential expression of IL-4, -5, -10 and -13. Collectively these data suggest that characterisation of the nature of immune response induced in mice by proteins may provide a useful adjunct or alternative to current strategies for the assessment of allergenic potential.

Atherosclerotic CVD is the most common cause of death in the West. Yet, its pathogenesis and early development are only partially understood. Central to the early atherosclerotic process is impairment of vascular endothelial function. Endothelial dysfunction can be measured non-invasively and is evident in children before clinical manifestations of atherosclerosis in adulthood. Factors in early life, such as conventional cardiovascular risk factors, or programming by perinatal growth and nutrition strongly affect endothelial function and hence the development of atherosclerosis and CVD. For instance, low birth weight and faster growth early in infancy have a detrimental effect on vascular structure and function. Childhood obesity, a key independent risk factor for CVD, also adversely affects early vascular health. Obesity is associated with endothelial dysfunction and greater arterial stiffness from as early as the first decade of life, while weight loss is beneficial. This effect on vascular function is probably mediated in part by low-grade inflammation and insulin resistance associated with obesity or by the production by adipose tissue of cytokine-like molecules, collectively termed adipokines. A high leptin concentration, in particular, is found in obese individuals and is strongly associated with vascular changes related to early atherosclerosis. The present review focuses on the early origins of endothelial dysfunction, emphasising the role of obesity. It also considers the mechanisms by which obesity impairs endothelial function, understanding of which will be important to further scientific knowledge and to improve public health.

Obesity is characterized by an expanded adipose tissue mass. Recent data suggest that adipose tissue is a multi-functional organ rather than simply a passive storage site for excess energy. It has been clearly demonstrated that human adipose tissue produces a variety of secretory factors that exert multiple effects at both the local and the systemic level. To date, >100 products, covering a broad range of protein families as well as many fatty acids and prostaglandins, have been reported to be secreted by adipose tissue. The source of these secreted factors is not only mature fat cells but also poorly-identified cells present in the stromal–vascular fraction including macrophages. Secreted factors of particular interest include many cytokines or chemokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, as well as plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, angiotensin-II, leptin, and adiponectin. In the obese state the expression and secretion of these factors is disturbed. With the exception of adiponectin, most circulating factors are elevated. From this perspective, obesity can be described as a pro-inflammatory condition. In addition, regional differences in adipose expression of many of these factors have been found. There is now growing evidence that many secretory factors play an important role in the pathophysiology of the metabolic and cardiovascular complications of obesity. The question arising from these observations is how the secretory pattern of adipose tissue can be modified by dietary and pharmacological measures to reduce the health risks of obesity.

Studies of biochemical homeostasis and/or body growth have been included as outcome variables in most nutrition trials in paediatric patients. Moreover, these outcome variables have provided important insights into the nutrient requirements of infants and children, and continue to do so. Examples of the value of such studies in improving parenteral nutrition, in defining essential fatty acid metabolism and requirements of infants and in defining the protein and energy needs of low-birth-weight infants are discussed. Data from such studies have helped to define the mechanism of metabolic acidosis and hyperammonaemia associated with the use of early crystalline amino acid mixture and, hence, how to prevent these disorders. Such studies have allowed the development of parenteral amino acid mixtures that circumvent grossly abnormal plasma concentrations of most amino acids and appear to be utilized more efficiently. These studies have also helped define micronutrient requirements, including requirements for several such nutrients that had not been previously recognized as essential (e.g. Cr, Se, Mo, α-linolenic acid). Studies of body growth have been particularly valuable in defining the nutritional requirements of low-birth-weight infants. Finally, studies of metabolic homeostasis coupled with more sophisticated metabolic studies have provided considerable insight into the metabolism of the essential fatty acids, linoleic acid (18:2n-6) and α-linolenic acid (18:3n-3). Although such studies have not defined the amount of the longer-chain PUFA synthesized from each of these essential fatty acids, i.e. arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) and DHA (22:6n-3), they have shown that the rates of conversion are extremely variable from infant to infant, suggesting a possible explanation of why some studies show developmental advantages from intake of these fatty acids while others do not.

Coeliac disease is a lifelong intolerance to the gluten found in wheat, barley and rye, and some patients are also sensitive to oats. The disease is genetically determined, with 10% of the first-degree relatives affected and 75% of monozygotic twins being concordant. Of the patients with coeliac disease 95% are human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-DQ2 or HLA-DQ8 positive. Characteristically, the jejunal mucosa becomes damaged by a T-cell-mediated autoimmune response that is thought to be initiated by a 33-mer peptide fragment in A2 gliadin, and patients with this disorder have raised levels of anti-endomysium and tissue transglutaminase antibodies in their blood. Coeliac disease is the major diagnosable food intolerance and, with the advent of a simple blood test for case finding, prevalence rates are thought to be approximately 1:100. Classically, the condition presented with malabsorption and failure to thrive in infancy, but this picture has now been overtaken by the much more common presentation in adults, usually with non-specific symptoms such as tiredness and anaemia, disturbance in bowel habit or following low-impact bone fractures. Small intestinal biopsy is necessary for diagnosis and shows a characteristically flat appearance with crypt hypoplasia and infiltration of the epithelium with lymphocytes. Diet is the key to management and a gluten-free diet effectively cures the condition. However, this commitment is lifelong and many aisles in the supermarket are effectively closed to individuals with coeliac disease. Compliance can be monitored by measuring antibodies in blood, which revert to negative after 6–9 months. Patients with minor symptoms, who are found incidentally to have coeliac disease, often ask whether it is necessary to adhere to the diet. Current advice is that dietary adherence is necessary to avoid the long-term complications, which are, principally, osteoporosis and small bowel lymphoma. However, risk of these complications diminishes very considerably in patients who are on a gluten-free diet.

The metabolic syndrome is a very common condition, characterised by insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia, abdominal obesity and hypertension, that is associated with a high risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and CVD. Obesity is a key aetiological factor in the development of the metabolic syndrome. In light of the increasing prevalence of obesity, there is a high requirement to reduce the impact of the adverse health effects associated with the metabolic syndrome. The aetiological role of nutrient-derived metabolic stressors, in particular fatty acids, in the development of obesity and the metabolic syndrome is explored. Also, the evidence that pro-inflammatory stressors may predispose to obesity-induced insulin resistance is reviewed. The present paper explores the concept that reducing the impact of metabolic and inflammatory stressors may reduce the adverse health effects of obesity and slow the progression towards the metabolic syndrome and T2DM. Evidence from human dietary intervention studies that have investigated the potential therapeutic effects of dietary fatty acid modification is explored. The present review highlights the requirement to take account of genetic background, within the context of nutrient regulation of gene expression and individual responsiveness to dietary therapy. This approach will further the understanding of the interaction between fatty acids in the pathogenesis and progression of the metabolic syndrome.

Obesity is a multidisciplinary area, the ‘biology’ of which encompasses: (1) the fundamental mechanisms of energy balance and its regulation; (2) the biological basis for the development of obesity; (3) adipose tissue function; (4) the biological description of the obese state; (5) the pathological consequences of obesity; (6) the physiological basis for treatment strategies. At a mechanistic level, important developments in recent years include the identification of novel neuroendocrine factors in the control of appetite (such as cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript, the orexins, the endocannabinoids) and the discovery of new peripheral signals (such as leptin, ghrelin). Despite the identification of additional uncoupling proteins (UCP2, UCP3), mitochondrial uncoupling in brown adipose tissue through UCP1 remains the only major mechanism for adaptive thermogenesis. White adipose tissue (WAT) has now moved centre stage in energy balance and obesity research, and there are three main reasons: (1) it is the organ which defines obesity; (2) it is the source of a critical endocrine signal in the control of body weight; (3) it secretes a range of diverse protein factors, termed adipokines, some of which are directly implicated in the pathologies associated with obesity. WAT is now recognised as a key endocrine organ, communicating both with the brain and peripheral tissues through the adipokines. Obesity is characterised by mild inflammation, and WAT may be the main locus of the inflammatory state, producing cytokines, chemokines, acute-phase proteins and angiogenic factors. It has been suggested that inflammation in obesity is principally an adaptive response to hypoxia in clusters of adipocytes within the expanding adipose mass.

There is a clear rationale for elucidating effective ways of identifying and treating disease-related malnutrition (DRM), given the physiological and financial consequences of this common condition and its treatability. Evidence indicates the efficacy of nutritional support methods (oral, tube and intravenous) in increasing total nutritional intake while having little effect on appetite, satiety, appetite mediators (e.g. leptin) and voluntary food intake. When used as the only source of nutrition, artificial nutrition can effectively maintain nutritional intake, and yet many patients find enteral or parenteral feeding alone is unable to relieve distressing appetite sensations, and unusual temporal patterns (including dissociation between hunger and desire to eat) occur. Despite the positive impact of these feeding methods on intake, controversy about whether nutritional support can affect patient outcome has remained. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses indicate that improvements in function and clinical (mortality, complication rates) outcome can occur in a number of patient groups (including hospitalised patients, the elderly, patients who have had gastrointestinal surgery, patients at risk of pressure ulcers). In order to target those patients who will benefit from nutritional support, and overcome the ongoing problem of poor detection and recognition of DRM, simple routine screening to identify risk followed by practical evidence-based treatment is recommended.

The mucosal immune system fulfils the primary function of defence against potential pathogens that may enter across vulnerable surface epithelia. However, a secondary function of the intestinal immune system is to discriminate between pathogen-associated and ‘harmless’ antigens, expressing active responses against the former and tolerance to the latter. Control of immune responses appears to be an active process, involving local generation of IgA and of regulatory and/or regulated T lymphocytes. Two important periods of maximum exposure to novel antigens occur in the young animal, immediately after birth and at weaning. In both cases the antigenic composition of the intestinal contents can shift suddenly, as a result of a novel diet and of colonisation by novel strains and species of bacteria. Changes in lifestyles of man, and husbandry of animals, have resulted in weaning becoming much more abrupt than previously in evolution, increasing the number of antigens that must be simultaneously evaluated by neonates. Thus, birth and weaning are likely to represent hazard and critical control points in the development of appropriate responses to pathogens and harmless dietary and commensal antigens. Neonates are born with relatively undeveloped mucosal immune systems. At birth this factor may prevent both expression of active immune responses and development of tolerance. However, colonisation by intestinal flora expands the mucosal immune system in antigen-specific and non-specific ways. At weaning antibody to fed proteins can be detected, indicating active immune responses to fed proteins. It is proposed that under normal conditions the ability of the mucosal immune system to mount active responses to foreign antigens develops simultaneously with the ability to control and regulate such responses. Problems arise when one or other arm of the immune system develops inappropriately, resulting in inappropriate effector responses to harmless food proteins (allergy) or inadequate responses to pathogens (disease susceptibility).

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a collective term for a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of conjugated dienoic derivatives of linoleic acid. CLA has received considerable attention as a result of animal experiments that report anti-carcinogenic, anti-atherogenic and anti-diabetic properties, and modulation of body composition and immune function. Several studies of CLA supplementation in human subjects have now been published, but in contrast to animal studies there has been marked variation between reports on the health-related outcomes. The consensus from seventeen published studies in human subjects is that CLA does not affect body weight or body composition. Some detrimental effects of the trans-10,cis-12 CLA isomer have also been reported in terms of altered blood lipid composition and impaired insulin sensitivity. Finally, CLA has only limited effects on immune functions in man. However, there have been reports of some interesting isomer-specific effects of CLA on the blood lipid profile, but not on immune function. These isomer-specific effects need further investigation. Until more is known, CLA supplementation in man should be considered with caution.