Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-06T07:16:44.409Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

A healthy body, a healthy mind: long-term impact of diet on mood and cognitive function

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2007

Peter J. Rogers*
Affiliation:
Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TN, UK
*
Corresponding author: Dr Peter J. Rogers, fax +44 117 9288588, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Certain dietary risk factors for physical ill health are also risk factors for depression and cognitive impairment. Although cholesterol lowering has been suggested to increase vulnerability to depression, there is better support for an alternative hypothesis that intake of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids can affect mood (and aggression). Possible mechanisms for such effects include modification of neuronal cell membrane fluidity and consequent impact on neurotransmitter function. Stronger evidence exists concerning a role for diet in influencing cognitive impairment and cognitive decline in older age, in particular through its impact on vascular disease. For example, cognitive impairment is associated with atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes and hypertension, and findings from a broad range of studies show significant relationships between cognitive function and intakes of various nutrients, including long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, antioxidant vitamins, and folate and vitamin B12. Further support is provided by data on nutrient status and cognitive function. Almost all this evidence, however, comes from epidemiological and correlational studies. Given the problem of separating cause and effect from such evidence, and the fact that cognitive impairment and cognitive decline (and depression) are very likely to be significant factors contributing to the consumption of a poor diet, greater emphasis should now be placed on conducting intervention studies. An efficient approach to this problem could be to include assessments of mood and cognitive function as outcome measures in studies designed primarily to investigate the impact of dietary interventions on markers of physical health.

Type
Nutrition and Behaviour Group Symposium on ‘Future Perspectives in Nutrition and Behaviour Research’
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 2001

References

Adams, PB, Lawson, S, Sanigorski, A & Sinclair, AJ (1996) Arachidonic acid to eicosapentaenoic acid ratio in blood correlates positively with clinical symptoms of depression. Lipids 31, Suppl., S157S161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alpert, JE & Fava, M (1997) Nutrition and depression: The role of folate. Nutrition Reviews 55, 145149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, IR, Edman, JS, Selhub, J, Morrow, FD, Marby, DW, Kayne, HL & Cole, JO (1992) Plasma homocysteine in vascular disease and in nonvascular dementia of depressed elderly people. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 86, 386390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benton, D (1995) Do low cholesterol levels slow mental processing? Psychosomatic Medicine 57, 5053.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berr, C, Richard, MJ, Roussel, AM & Bonithon-Kopp, C (1998) Systemic oxidative stress and cognitive performance in the population-based EVA study. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 24, 12021208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bondi, MW, Salmon, DP, Monsch, AU, Galasko, D, Butters, N, Klauber, MR, Thal, LJ & Saitoh, T (1995) Episodic memory changes are associated with APOE-epsilon 4 allele in non-demented older adults. Neurology 45, 22032206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
British Nutrition Foundation (1992). Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Nutritional and Physiological Significance. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
British Nutrition Foundation (1999) n-3 Fatty Acids and Health. London: British Nutrition Foundation.Google Scholar
Clarke, R, Daly, L, Robinson, K, Naughten, E, Cahalane, S, Fowler, B & Graham, I (1991) Hyperhomocysteinemia: An independent risk factor for vascular disease. New England Journal of Medicine 324, 11491155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dhurandhar, NV & Atkinson, RL (1999) Complications of obesity. In Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition, vol. 3, pp. 14601466 [Sadler, MJ, Strain, JJ and Caballero, B, editors]. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Dixon, LB, Shannon, BM, Tershakovec, AM, Bennett, MJ, Coates, PM & Cortner, JA (1997) Effects of family history of heart disease, apolipoprotein E phenotype, and lipoprotein(a) on the response of children's plasma lipids to change in dietary lipids. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 66, 12071217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwards, R, Peet, M, Shay, J & Horrobin, D (1998) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in the diet and in red blood cell membranes of depressed patients. Journal of Affective Disorders 48, 149155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engelberg, H (1992) Low serum cholesterol and suicide. Lancet 339, 727729.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Folstein, MF, Folstein, SE & McHugh, PR (1975) "Mini-Mental State": a practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research 12, 189198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frei, B, Keaney, JF, Retsky, KL & Chen, K (1996) Vitamins C and E and LDL oxidation. Vitamins and Hormones 52, 134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gale, CR, Martyn, CN & Cooper, C (1996) Cognitive impairment and mortality in a cohort of elderly people. British Medical Journal 312, 608611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfrey, PSA, Toone, BK, Carney, MWP, Flynn, TG, Bottiglieri, T, Laundy, M, Chanarin, I & Reynolds, EH (1990) Enhancement of recovery from psychiatric illness by methylfolate. Lancet 336, 392395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Golay, A, Allaz, A-F, Morel, Y, de Tonnac, N, Tankova, S & Reaven, G (1996) Similar weight loss with low- or high-carbohydrate diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, 174178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, MW & Rogers, PJ (1995) Impaired cognitive function in dieters during dieting. Psychological Medicine 25, 10031010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haller, J, Weggemans, RM, Ferry, M & Guigoz, Y (1996) Mental health: minimental state examination and geriatric depression scores of elderly Europeans in the SENECA study of 1993. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50, Suppl. 2, S112S116.Google ScholarPubMed
Hamazaki, T, Sawazaki, S, Itomura, M, Asaoka, E, Nagao, Y, Nishimura, N, Yazawa, K, Kuwamori, T & Kobayashi, M (1996) The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on aggression in young adults: A placebo-controlled double-blind study. Journal of Clinical Investigation 97, 11291134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamazaki, T, Sawazaki, S, Nagao, Y, Kuwamori, T, Yazawa, K, Mizushima, Y & Kobayashi, M (1998) Docosahexaenoic acid does not affect aggression of normal volunteers under nonstressful conditions. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Lipids 33, 663667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hibbeln, JR (1999) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in depression and related conditions. In Phospholipid Spectrum Disorder in Psychiatry, pp. 195210 [Peet, M, Glen, I and Horrobin, DF, editors]. Carnforth, Lancs.: Marius Press.Google Scholar
Hibbeln, JR, Linnoila, M, Umhau, JC, Rawlings, R, George, DT & Salem, N (1998 a) Essential fatty acids predict metabolites of serotonin and dopamine in cerebrospinal fluid among healthy control subjects, and early- and late-onset alcoholics. Biological Psychiatry 44, 235242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hibbeln, JR & Salem, N (1995) Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and depression: when cholesterol does not satisfy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62, 19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hibbeln, JR, Umhau, JC, George, DT & Salem, N (1997) Do polyunsaturates predict hostility and depression? World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 82, 175186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hibbeln, JR, Umhau, JC, Linnoila, M, George, DT, Ragan, PW, Shoaf, SE, Vaughan, MR, Rawlings, R & Salem, N (1998 b) A replication study of violent and nonviolent subjects: Cerebrospinal fluid metabolites of serotonin and dopamine are predicted by plasma essential fatty acids. Biological Psychiatry 44, 243249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hofman, A, Ott, A, Breteler, MMB, Bots, ML, Slooter, AJC, Van Harskamp, F, Van Duijn, CN, Van Broeckhoven, C & Grobbee, DE (1997) Atherosclerosis, apolipoprotein E, and prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in the Rotterdam Study. Lancet 349, 151154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Homocysteine Lowering Trialists' Collaboration (1998) Lowering blood homocysteine with folic acid based supplements: meta-analysis of randomised trials. British Medical Journal 316, 894898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jama, JW, Launer, LJ, Witteman, JCM, denBreeijen, JH, Breteler, MMB, Grobbee, DE & Hofman, A (1996) Dietary antioxidants and cognitive function in a population-based sample of older persons: The Rotterdam study. American Journal of Epidemiology 144, 275280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalmijn, S, Feskens, EJM, Launer, LJ & Kromhout, D (1997 a) Polyunsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants, and cognitive function in very old men. American Journal of Epidemiology 145, 3341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalmijn, S, Feskens, EJM, Launer, LJ, Stijnen, T & Kromhout, D (1995) Glucose-intolerance, hyperinsulinemia and cognitive function in a general-population of elderly men. Diabetologia 38, 10961102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalmijn, S, Launer, LJ, Lindemans, J, Bots, ML, Hofman, A & Breteler, MMB (1999) Total homocysteine and cognitive decline in a community-based sample of elderly subjects: The Rotterdam Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 150, 283289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalmijn, S, Launer, LJ, Ott, A, Witteman, JCM, Hofman, A & Breteler, MMB (1997 b) Dietary fat intake and risk of dementia in the Rotterdam Study. Annals of Neurology 42, 776782.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, JR, Manuck, SB & Shively, CA (1991) The effects of fat and cholesterol on social behaviour in monkeys. Psychosomatic Medicine 53, 634642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, JR, Shively, CA, Fontenot, MB, Morgan, TM, Howell, SM, Manuck, SB, Muldoon, MF & Mann, JJ (1994) Demonstration of an association among dietary cholesterol, central serotonergic activity, and social behaviour in monkeys. Psychosomatic Medicine 56, 479484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinsella, JE, Lokesh, B & Stone, RA (1990) Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and amelioration of cardiovascular disease: possible mechanisms. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, 128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
La Rue, A, Koehler, K, Wayne, SJ, Chiulli, SJ, Haaland, KY & Garry, PJ (1997) Nutritional status and cognitive functioning in a normally aging sample: a 6-y reassessment. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65, 2029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lean, MEJ, Han, TS, Prvan, T, Richmond, PR & Avenell, A (1997) Weight loss with high and low carbohydrate 1200 kcal diets in free living women. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 51, 243248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lethem, R & Orrell, M (1997) Antioxidants and dementia. Lancet 349, 11891190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linder, MC (1991) Nutritional Biochemistry and Metabolism: With Clinical Applications, 2nd ed. Norwalk, CT: Appleton and Lange.Google Scholar
Litman, BJ & Mitchell, DC (1996) A role for phospholipid polyunsaturation in modulating membrane protein function. Lipids 31, Suppl., S193S197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maes, M, Smith, R, Christophe, A, Cosyns, P, Desnyder, R & Meltzer, H (1996) Fatty acid composition in major depression: decreased ω3 fractions in cholesteryl esters and increased C20:4ω6/C20:5ω3 ratio in cholesteryl esters and phospholipids. Journal of Affective Disorders 38, 3546.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meydani, M (1998) Nutrition, immune cells, and atherosclerosis. Nutrition Reviews 56, S177S182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moroney, JT, Tanng, MX, Berglund, L, Small, S, Merchant, C, Bell, K, Stern, Y & Mayeux, R (1999) Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and the risk of dementia with stroke. Journal of the American Medical Association 282, 254260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, MC, Beckett, LA, Scherr, PA, Hebert, LE, Bennet, DA, Field, TS & Evans, DA (1998) Vitamin E and vitamin C supplement use and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders 12, 121126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muldoon, MF, Barger, SD, Ryan, CM, Flory, JD, Lehoczky, JP, Matthews, KA & Manuck, SB (2000) Effects of lovastatin on cognitive function and psychological well-being. American Journal of Medicine 108, 538546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muldoon, MF, Manuck, SB & Matthews, KA (1990) Lowering cholesterol concentrations and mortality: a quantitative review of primary prevention trials. British Medical Journal 310, 309314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muldoon, MF, Rossouw, JE, Manuck, SB, Glueck, CJ, Kaplan, JR & Kaufmann, PG (1993) Low or lowered cholesterol and risk of death from suicide and trauma. Metabolism 42, Suppl. 1, 4556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muldoon, MF, Ryan, CM, Matthews, KA & Manuck, SB (1997) Serum cholesterol and intellectual performance. Psychosomatic Medicine 59, 382387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, CJL & Lopez, AD (1996) The Global Burden of Disease. Cambridge, MA: Harvard School of Public Health.Google ScholarPubMed
Ortega, RM, Requejo, AM, Andrés, P, López-Sobaler, AM, Quintas, ME, Redondo, MR, Navia, B & Rivas, T (1997) Dietary intake and cognitive function in a group of elderly people. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 66, 803809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peet, M, Murphy, B, Shay, J & Horrobin, D (1998) Depletion of omega-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cell membranes of depressive patients. Biological Psychiatry 43, 313314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perkins, AJ, Hendrie, HC, Callahan, CM, Gao, S, Unverzagt, FW, Xu, Y, Hall, KS & Hui, SL (1999) Association of antioxidants with memory in a multiethnic elderly sample using the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. American Journal of Epidemiology 150, 3744.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perrig, WJ, Perrig, P & Stähelin, HB (1997) The relation between antioxidants and memory performance in the old and very old. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 45, 718724.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ploeckinger, B, Dantendorfer, K, Ulm, M, Baischer, W, Derfler, K, Musalek, M & Dadak, C (1996) Rapid decrease of serum cholesterol concentration and postpartum depression. British Medical Journal 313, 664.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polet, P, Rogers, PJ, Wardle, J, Atkinson, EA, Vallis, L, Rapoport, L, Taylor, M & Judd, P (1998) Mood effects of reduced-fat dietary treatment. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 57, 83A.Google Scholar
Prince, MJ, Bird, AS, Blizard, RA & Mann, AH (1996) Is the cognitive function of older patients affected by antihypertensive treatment? Results from 54 months of the Medical Research Council's treatment trial of hypertension in older adults. British Medical Journal 312, 801805.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prinz, PN (1995) Sleep and sleep disorders in older adults. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology 12, 139146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, R (2000) Cerebrovascular disease and later life depression: An age old association revisited. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 15, 419433.3.0.CO;2-9>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richardson, JS (1993) Free radicals in the genesis of Alzheimer's disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 695, 7376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riggs, KM, Spiro, A, Tucker, K & Rush, D (1996) Relations of vitamin B-12, vitamin B-6, folate and homocysteine to cognitive performance in the Normative Aging Study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 63, 306314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, PJ (1995) Food, mood and appetite. Nutrition Research Reviews 8, 243269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenberg, IR & Miller, JW (1992) Nutritional factors in physical and cognitive functions of elderly people. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 55, 1237S1243S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubinsztein, DC (1995) Apolipoprotein E: a review of its roles in lipoprotein metabolism, neuronal growth and repair and as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Psychological Medicine 25, 223229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sano, M, Ernesto, C, Thomas, RG, Klauber, MR, Schafer, K, Grundman, M, Woodbury, P, Growden, J, Cotman, CW, Pfeiffer, E, Schneider, LS & Thal, LJ (1997) A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The New England Journal of Medicine 336, 12161222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, R, Hayn, M, Reinhart, B, Roob, G, Schnidt, H, Schumacher, M, Watzinger, N & Launer, LJ (1998) Plasma antioxidants and cognitive performance in middle-aged and older adults: Results of the Austrian Stroke Prevention Study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 46, 14071410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaper, AG, Wannamethee, SG & Walker, M (1997) Body weight: implications for the prevention of coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes mellitus in a cohort study of middle aged men. British Medical Journal 314, 13111317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, A, Clark, R, Nutt, D, Haller, J, Hayward, S & Perry, K (1999) Anti-oxidant vitamins and mental performance of the elderly. Human Psychopharmacology – Clinical and Experimental 14, 459471.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, AP, Clark, RE, Nutt, DJ, Haller, JG, Hayward, S & Perry, K (2000) Vitamin C mood and cognitive functioning in the elderly. Nutritional Neuroscience 2, 249256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spring, B, Chiodo, J & Bowen, DJ (1987) Carbohydrates, tryptophan, and behavior: A methodological Review. Psychological Bulletin 102, 234256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stabler, SP, Lindenbaum, J & Allen, RH (1997) Vitamin B-12 deficiency in the elderly: current dilemmas. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 66, 741749.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stewart, R (1999) Hypertension and cognitive decline. British Journal of Psychiatry 174, 286287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stewart, R & Liolitsa, D (1999) Type 2 diabetes mellitus, cognitive impairment and dementia. Diabetic Medicine 16, 93112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoll, AL, Severus, WM, Fremman, MP, Rueter, S, Zboyan, HA, Diamond, E, Cress, KK & Maraangell, LB (1999) Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 407412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teff, KL, Young, SN & Blundell, JE (1989 a) The effect of protein or carbohydrate breakfasts on subsequent plasma amino acid levels, satiety and nutrient selection in normal males. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 34, 829837.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teff, KL, Young, SN & Marchand, L & Botez, MI (1989 b) Acute effect of protein or carbohydrate breakfasts on human cerebrospinal fluid monoamine precursor and metabolite levels. Journal of Neurochemistry 52, 235241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, T, Thomas, G, McLendon, C, Sutton, T & Mullan, M (1996) β-amyloid-mediated vasoactivity and vascular endothelial damage. Nature 380, 168171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ueland, PM & Refsum, H (1989) Plasma homocysteine, a risk factor for vascular disease: Plasma levels in health, disease, and drug therapy. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 114, 473501.Google ScholarPubMed
Wardle, J (1995) Cholesterol and psychological well-being. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 39, 549562. MEDLINE Abstract CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wardle, J, Armitage, J, Collins, R, Wallendszus, K, Keech, A & Lawson, A (1996) Randomised placebo controlled trial of the effect on mood of lowering cholesterol concentration. British Medical Journal 313, 7578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wardle, J, Rogers, PJ, Judd, P, Taylor, MA, Rapoport, L, Green, MW & Nicholson-Perry, K (2000) Randomized trial of the effects of cholesterol-lowering dietary treatment on psychological function. American Journal of Medicine 108, 547553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witztum, JL (1994) The oxidation hypothesis of atherosclerosis. Lancet 344, 793795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wurtman, RJ, Hefti, F & Melamed, E (1981) Precursor control of neurotransmitter synthesis. Pharmacological Reviews 32, 315335.Google Scholar
Wurtman, RJ & Wurtman, JJ (1989) Carbohydrates and depression. Scientific American 260, 5057.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, SN (1993) The use of diet and dietary components in the study of factors controlling affect in humans: A review. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 18, 235244.Google Scholar