Proper packing technique is crucial to minimize blood loss and successfully stop fatal junctional (axilla, groin, and neck) bleedings. Several medical simulators and mannequins are used to teach techniques for manual pressure and wound packing. Live tissue training (LTT) using animal models represents a high-fidelity simulator, but the number of times massive hemorrhage can be practiced is limited due to cumulative blood loss of the animal. Moreover, the animal’s potent coagulation limits the reuse of injuries. The study aimed at creating and validating a reproducible and repeatable exsanguination simulator to be used for high-volume training.

This study was approved by the regional animal ethics committee (Dnr 17953-2020). All animals were fully anesthetized throughout the duration of experiments. A repeatable exsanguination simulator using live tissue (RESULT) was created using commonly available materials to add reproducible junctional bleedings in an LTT context. A canister of porcine or bovine blood is connected to a standard gravity infusion set with roll clamp and pump chamber removed and added to a 100 cm 3-way stopcock connected to a 60 ml syringe. The free end of tubing is surgically inserted into the hind leg of a pig and placed inside a 5 cm long and 5 cm deep wound cavity. The simulator was evaluated with instructors controlling the rate of bleeding using the syringe while training participants packed the wound.

According to the instructors, participants benefited from the additional training made possible by using RESULT. Instructors received direct feedback on applied manual pressure and packing through the resistance of the syringe plunger. Moreover, participants found the increased number of repetitions beneficial to their training. The animals had no change in status from the multiple bleeding interventions.

Both participants and instructors found the novel bleeding model useful for high-volume training in stopping massive junctional bleeding.