Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T13:57:52.247Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

No end to caring?: Politics and the moral riptide of human evolution

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2016

Shea Robison
Shea Robison*
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science, Idaho State University, Graveley Hall, Pocatello, ID 83209. [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

In a recent issue of Politics and the Life Sciences Mark Walker presented a compelling proposition for reducing evil in the world via an interdisciplinary program he calls the “Genetic Virtue Project” (GVP). As Walker explains, the purpose of the GVP is “to discover and enhance human ethics using biotechnology genetic correlates of virtuous behavior.” PLS subsequently published several critiques of this proposal. While most of these critiques focused on conventional doubts about the technical feasibility or the ethics of such interventions, the more fundamental concern revealed by both Walker's proposal and its critiques is in the largely unquestioned assumption that more morality is necessarily better. Human history is marked by a gradual if uneven extension of moral concern to increasingly distant others, which many take as evidence of the rationality of morality. There is substantial evidence, though, that this expansion is fundamentally biological in origin and therefore not ultimately limited by rationality. Because these expanding moral feelings feel so good to us, we are incapable of perceiving the danger from their ever-expanding focus, in particular from the sincere but increasingly maladaptive collective policies they will engender. Utilizing the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche as a platform, the feasibility of different natural and cultural responses to this impending crisis of caring are examined, none of which are found capable of counteracting this expanding morality. Instead, the best hope for a successful response to this dangerous expansion of caring is actually a sort of reverse GVP, in which the biological mechanisms for this unchecked moral expansion are manipulated via genetic engineering to dial back this expansion. However, the likelihood of actually implementing such an admittedly counterintuitive and controversial program within an increasingly democratized world is doubtful. Ultimately, if we are unable to overcome this betrayal by our best intentions, where does that leave us as a species?

Keywords

Moral concernaltruismmaladaptive policiesGenetic Virtue Programgenetic manipulationNietzscheÜbermensch
Type
Research Articles
Information
Politics and the Life Sciences , Volume 33 , Issue 1 , Spring 2014 , pp. 2 - 32
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Politics and the Life Sciences 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Nietzsche, Friedrich, Beyond Good and Evil, In Basic Writings of Nietzsche, edited byKaufmann, W., translated by Kaufmann, W., pp. 199–427 (Modern Library, 1885/2000), sec. 212.Google Scholar
2. Walker, Mark, “Enhancing genetic virtue: A project for twenty-first century humanity?” Politics and the Life Sciences, 2009, 28(2): 27–47, at p. 28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3. “Genetic virtue, reconsidered.” Politics and the Life Sciences, 2010, 29(1), 72–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4. Andreadis, Athena, “The tempting illusion of genetic virtue,” Politics and the Life Sciences, 2010, 29(1): 76–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5. Agar, Nicholas, “Enhancing genetic virtue?” Politics and the Life Sciences, 2010, 29(1): 74–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6. Hedges, Christopher, I Don't Believe in Atheists (Continuum International Publis, 2008), p. 156.Google Scholar
7. Pinker, Steven, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (Viking Adult, 2011), p. 622.Google Scholar
8. Nietzsche, , Beyond Good and Evil, sec. 6.Google Scholar
9. Russell, Bertrand, A History of Western Philosophy (Simon & Schuster, 1945), p. 760.Google Scholar
10. Russell, , 1945, p. 773(emphases added).Google Scholar
11. Cohen, Morris R. and Nagel, Ernest, Introduction to Logic and the Scientific Method (Hughes Press, 1934/2008), pp. 388–389.Google Scholar
12. Fischer, David, Historians Fallacies (Harper & Row, 1970), pp. 155–157.Google Scholar
13. Cohen, and Nagel, , 1934/2008, pp. 388–390.Google Scholar
14. Fischer, , 1970, p. 155.Google Scholar
15. Darwin, Charles, Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, vol. 1 (London: John Murray, 1871), pp. 100–101.Google Scholar
16. Haidt, Jonathan, “The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment,” Psychological Review, 2001, 108: 814–834.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17. Seehttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/caring.Google Scholar
18. Joyce, Richard, The Evolution of Morality (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006).Google Scholar
19. Easton, David, A Framework for Political Analysis (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965).Google Scholar
20. Lasswell, Harold, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (New York: P. Smith, 1950).Google Scholar
21. AVEPALMAS, “Universal Declaration of Plants' Rights,” http://www.avepalmas.org/rights.htm.Google Scholar
22. Reuters, “Plants rights party to contest next Dutch election,” March 29, 2010, http://in.reuters.com/article/2010/03/29/us-dutch-election-plants-idINTRE62S2HA20100329.Google Scholar
23. Federal Ethics Committee on Non-Human Biotechnology (ECNH), “Moral considerations of plants for their own sake,” April 2008, http://www.ekah.admin.ch/fileadmin/ekah-dateien/dokumentation/publikationen/e-Broschure-Wurde-Pflanze-2008.pdf.Google Scholar
24. Starik, Mark, “Should trees have managerial standing? Toward stakeholder status for non-human nature,” Journal of Business Ethics, 1995, 14(3): 207–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25. “Boulder County, Colo., mulls rules recognizing rights of plants, The Washington Times, September 12, 2013, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/sep/12/boulder-county-mulls-rules-recognizing-rights-plan/.Google Scholar
26. Stone, Christopher, “Should trees have standing? Toward legal rights for natural objects,” Southern California Law Review, 1972, 45(450): 3–54.Google Scholar
27. 405 U.S. 727 (1972).Google Scholar
28. Singer, Peter, The Expanding Circle: Ethics, Evolution and Moral Progress (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), pp. 120–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29. Rolston, Holmes III, “Is there an ecological ethic?” Ethics: An International Journal of Social, Political, and Legal Philosophy, 1975, 18(2):93–109, at p. 101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30. Erikson, Robert, Mackuen, Michael, and Stimson, James, The Macro Polity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).Google Scholar
31. Erikson, Mackuen and Stimson, , p. 334.Google Scholar
32. Erikson, Mackuen and Stimson, , p. 224.Google Scholar
33. Erikson, Mackuen and Stimson, , p. 228.Google Scholar
34. Erikson, Mackuen and Stimson, , p. 230.Google Scholar
35. Wlezien, Christopher, “The public as thermostat: Dynamics of preferences for spending,” American Journal of Political Science, 1995, 39(4): 981–1000.Google Scholar
36. Wlezien, Christopher and Soroka, Stuart, “Federalism and public responsiveness to policy,” Publius: The Journal of Federalism, 2010, 41(1): 31–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37. Soroka, Stuart and Wlezien, Christopher, Degrees of Democracy: Politics, Public Opinion and Policy, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).Google Scholar
38. Erikson, Mackuen and Stimson, , pp. 326–328, 351.Google Scholar
39. Erikson, Mackuen and Stimson, , p. 360.Google Scholar
40. Caplan, Bryan. The Myth of the Rational Voter: Why Democracies Choose Bad Policies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), p. 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41. Caplan, , p. 151.Google Scholar
42. Bartels, Larry, “The irrational electorate,” Wilson Quarterly, 2008, 32(4): 44–50.Google Scholar
43. Caplan, , p. 152.Google Scholar
44. Caplan, , pp. 18–19, 148–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
45. Caplan, , p. 152.Google Scholar
46. Erikson, , Mackuen, and Stimson, .Google Scholar
47. Weber, Max, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Trans. byParsons, Talcott. (New York: Scribner's, 1958), p. 77.Google Scholar
48. Kralberg, S., “Max Weber's types of rationality: Cornerstones for the analysis of rationalization processes in history,” American Journal of Sociology, 1980, 85(5): 1145–1179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49. Singer, , p. 124.Google Scholar
50. Joyce, Richard, The Myth of Morality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 135–175.Google Scholar
51. Zajonc, Robert, “Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences,” American Psychologist, 1980, 35: 151–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52. Ostrom, Elinor, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53. Ostrom, Elinor, Gardner, Roy, and Walker, James, Rules, Games & Common-Pool Resources (University of Michigan Press, 1994).Google Scholar
54. Kant, Immanuel, “Idea for a universal history with a cosmopolitan intent,” in Perpetual Peace and Other Essays on Politics, History and Morals, trans. by Humphreys, T. (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1784/1983), pp. 29–39.Google Scholar
55. Kant, Immanuel, “To perpetual peace: A philosophical sketch,” in Perpetual Peace and Other Essays, trans. by Humphreys, T. (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1795/1983), pp. 107–143.Google Scholar
56. Kant, Immanuel, Religion within the Boundaries of Reason, trans. by Wood, A. and Di Giovanni, G. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
57. Formosa, Paul, “Kant on the radical evil of human nature,” The Philosophical Forum, 2007, 38(3): 224–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
58. Kant, , 1784/1983, p. 33.Google Scholar
59. Kant, , 1795/1983, p. 120.Google Scholar
60. Pojman, Louis, “Kant's perpetual peace and cosmopolitanism,” Journal of Social Philosophy, 2005, 36(1): 62–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61. Fukuyama, Francis, “The end of history?” The National Interest, Summer 1989, 16, p. 3.Google Scholar
62. Fukuyama, Francis, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Avon Books, 1992), pp. 47–48.Google Scholar
63. Fukuyama, , 1992, pp. 47–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
64. Huntington, Samuel, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late 20th Century (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993).Google Scholar
65. Russett, Bruce, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993).Google Scholar
66. Diamond, Larry, “Is the third wave of democratization over? An empirical assessment,” Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies, 1997, Working Paper #236, http://kellogg.nd.edu/publications/workingpapers/WPS/236.pdf.Google Scholar
67. Grand, Stephen, “Starting in Egypt: The fourth wave of democratization?” Brookings Institution, February 2011, http://www.brookings.edu/research/opinions/2011/02/10-egypt-democracy-grand.Google Scholar
68. Hunt, Lynn, Inventing Human Rights: A History (W.W. Norton & Company, 2008).Google Scholar
69. Moyn, Samuel, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Belknap Press, 2010).Google Scholar
70. Pinker, , pp. 176–186.Google Scholar
71. Hunt, , pp. 33–34.Google Scholar
72. Appiah, Kwame, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: W.W. Norton, 2006), pp. 144.Google Scholar
73. Appiah, Kwame, The Honor Code: How Moral Revolutions Happen (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2010).Google Scholar
74. Pinker, , p. xxv.Google Scholar
75. Pinker, , pp. 611–618.Google Scholar
76. Pinker, , p. 621.Google Scholar
77. Pinker, , p. 612.Google Scholar
78. Fukuyama, , 1992, p. 47.Google Scholar
79. Pinker, , pp. 648–650.Google Scholar
80. Singer, .Google Scholar
81. Singer, , p. 17.Google Scholar
82. Singer, , pp. 87–124.Google Scholar
83. Singer, , p. 88.Google Scholar
84. Singer, , p. 99.Google Scholar
85. Pinker, , 182.Google Scholar
86. Singer, , pp. 182, 186.Google Scholar
87. Pinker, , p. 648.Google Scholar
88. Pinker, , p. 690.Google Scholar
89. Andreadis, , p. 76.Google Scholar
90. Churchland, Patricia, Braintrust: What Neuroscience Tells Us About Morality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), p. 71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91. Andreadis, , p. 76.Google Scholar
92. Churchland, , pp. 67–68.Google Scholar
93. Churchland, , p. 27.Google Scholar
94. Churchland, Patricia, “Brain-based values,” December 2010, http://carta.anthropogeny.org/events/sessions/talk-2-1.Google Scholar
95. Churchland, , 2011, p. 30.Google Scholar
96. Churchland, , 2010.Google Scholar
97. Bielsky, Isadora, and Young, Larry, “Oxytocin, vasopressin, and social recognition in mammals,” Peptides, 2004, 25(9): 1565–1574.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
98. Lim, Mirada and Young, Larry, “Neuropeptidergic regulation of affiliative behavior and social bonding in animals,” Hormones and Behavior, 2006, 50: 506–517.Google Scholar
99. Ferguson, Jennifer, Young, Larry, Hearn, Elizabeth, Matzuk, Martin, Insel, Thomas, and Winslow, James, “Social amnesia in mice lacking the oxytocin gene,” Natural Genetics, 2000, 25: 284–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
100. Jennifer Ferguson, J. Matthew Aldag, Insel, Thomas, and Young, Larry, “Oxytocin in the medial amygdala is essential for social recognition in the mouse,” Journal of Neuroscience, 2001, 21(20): 8278–8285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
101. Ferguson, Young, et al.Google Scholar
102. Bielsky, Isadora, Hu, Shuang-Bao, Ren, Xianghui, Terwilliger, Ernest, and Young, Larry, “The V1a vasopressin receptor is necessary and sufficient for normal social recognition: A gene replacement study,” Neuron, 2005, 47: 503–513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
103. Hammock, Elizabeth, Lim, Miranda, Nair, H.P., and Young, Larry, “Association of vasopressin 1a receptor levels with a regulatory microsatellite and behavior,” Genes, Brain and Behavior, 2005, 4: 289–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
104. Hammock, Elizabeth and Young, Larry, “Microsatellite Instability Generates Diversity in Brain and Sociobehavioral Traits,” Science, 2005, 308: 1630–1634.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
105. Wang, Zuoxin, Ferris, Craig, and De Vries, Geert, “Role of septal vasopressin innervation in paternal behavior in prairie voles,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 1994, 91(1): 400–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
106. Parker, Karen and Lee, Theresa, “Central vasopressin administration regulates the onset of facultative paternal behavior in microtus pennsylvanicus (meadow voles),” Hormones and Behavior, 2001, 39(4): 285–294.Google Scholar
107. Andreadis, , p. 76.Google Scholar
108. Walker, Mark, “In defense of the Genetic Virtue Program,” Politics and the Life Sciences, 2010, 29(1), p. 91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
109. Hammock, Lim, et al., 2005, p. 297.Google Scholar
110. Kim, S.J., et al., “Transmission disequilibrium testing of arginine vasopressin receptor 1A (AVPR1A) polymorphisms in autism,” Molecular Psychiatry, 2002, 7: 503–507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111. Wassink, T. H., et al., “Examination of AVPR1a as an autism susceptibility gene,” Molecular Psychiatry, 2004, 9: 968–973.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
112. Charman, Tony, “Understanding the imitation deficit in autism may lead to a more specific model of autism as an empathy disorder,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2002, 25(1): 29–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
113. Slattery, David, and Neumann, Inga, “Oxytocin and major depressive disorder: Experimental and clinical evidence for links to aetiology and possible treatment,” Pharmaceuticals, 2010, 3(3): 702–724.Google Scholar
114. Churchland, , 2011, p. 71.Google Scholar
115. Kosfeld, Michael, Heinrichs, Markus, Zak, Paul J., Fischbacher, Urs and Fehr, Ernst, “Oxytocin increases trust in humans,” Nature, 2005, 435(7): 673–676.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
116. De Dreu, Carsten, Greer, Lindred, Handgraaf, Michel, Shalvi, Shaul, Van Kleef, Gerben A., Baas, Matthijs, Ten Velden, Femke S., Dijk, Eric, Van Feith, Sander W. W., “The neuropeptide oxytocin regulates parochial altruism in intergroup conflict among humans,” Science, 2010, 328(5984): 1408–1411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
117. Bartz, Jennifer and Hollander, Eric, “The neuroscience of affiliation: Forging links between basic and clinical research on neuropeptides and social behavior,” Hormones and Behavior, 2006, (50): 518–528.Google Scholar
118. Heinrichs, Markus, and Domes, Gregor, “Neuropeptides and social behavior: Effects of oxytocin and vasopressin in humans,” Progress in Brain Research, 2008, 170:337–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
119. Zak, Paul, Stanton, Angela, and Ahmadi, Sheila, “Oxytocin increases generosity in humans,” PLoS ONE, 2007, 2(11), e1128.Google Scholar
120. Baumgartner, Thomas, Heinrichs, Markus, Von-lanthen, Aline, Fischbacher, Urs, and Fehr, Ernst, “Oxytocin shapes neural circuitry of trust and trust adaptation in humans,” Neuron, 2008, 58(4): 639–650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
121. Andreadis, , p. 78.Google Scholar
122. De Dreu, Greer and Handgraaf, , et al., 2010.Google Scholar
123. De Dreu, Carsten, Greer, Lindred, Van Kleef, Gerben, Shalvi, Shaul, and Handgraaf, Michel, “Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2011, 108(4): 1262–1266.Google Scholar
124. Wilson, David, “Mulitlevel selection and major transitions,” in Evolution: The Extended Synthesis, Pigliucci, M. and Muller, G., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010).Google Scholar
125. Okasha, Samir, Evolution and the Levels of Selection (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).Google Scholar
126. Singer, , 2011, p. 17.Google Scholar
127. de Waal, Frans, Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
128. Preston, Stephanie and de Waal, Frans, “Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2002, 25(1): 1–72.Google Scholar
129. Aiello, Leslie and Dunbar, R.I.M., “Neocortex size, group size, and the evolution of language,” Current Anthropology, 1993, 34:184–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
130. Dunbar, R.I.M., “Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1993, 16: 681–735.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
131. Joyce, , 2007.Google Scholar
132. Joyce, Richard, The Evolution of Morality (2006).Google Scholar
133. Hrdy, Sarah, “How Humans Became Such ‘Other-Regarding’ Apes,” December 10, 2010, http://carta.anthropogeny.org/events/sessions/talk-5-1.Google Scholar
134. Peterson, Drew, The Moral Lives of Animals (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2011).Google Scholar
135. Hunt, .Google Scholar
136. Moyn, .Google Scholar
137. Abramson, Paul and Inglehart, Ronald, Value Change in Global Perspective (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1995).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
138. Wilson, , p. 89.Google Scholar
139. Okasha, .Google Scholar
140. Michod, Richard, Darwinian Dynamics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).Google Scholar
141. Michod, Richard, “Evolution of individuality during the transition from unicellular to multicellular life,” in In the Light of Evolution: Vol. 1. Adaptation and Complex Design, Avise, John C. and Ayala, Francisco J., eds. (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2007), pp. 129–144.Google Scholar
142. Michod, Richard and Herron, Matthew. “Cooperation and conflict during evolutionary transitions in individuality,” Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 2006, 19:1406–1409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
143. Nietzsche, Friedrich, Daybreak: Thoughts on the Prejudices of Morality, trans. by Hollingdale, R. J., (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), book II, sec. 143.Google Scholar
144. Nietzsche, , 1997, secs. 146–147.Google Scholar
145. Boyd, Robert and Richerson, Peter, “The evolution of indirect reciprocity,” Social Networks, 1989, 11:213–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
146. Young, H. P., Individual Strategy and Social Structure: An Evolutionary Theory of Institutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).Google Scholar
147. Nowak, Martin and Highfield, Roger, Super Cooperators: Altruism, Evolution, and Why We Need Each Other to Succeed (New York: The Free Press, 2011).Google Scholar
148. Nowak, Martin, Evolutionary Dynamics: Exploring the Equations of Life (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press, 2006), pp. 53, 85, 90, 113–116, 140, 166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
149. Nietzsche, Friedrich, Geneaology of Morals, in Basic Writings of Nietzsche, trans. by Kaufmann, Walter (Modern Library, 1887/2000), book II, sec. 24.Google Scholar
150. Schact, Richard, Nietzsche (New York: Routledge, 1985), p. 340.Google Scholar
151. Nietzsche, Friedrich, The Will to Power, trans. by Ludovici, Anthony M. (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1906/2006), sec. 866.Google Scholar
152. King, Martin Luther Jr., Strength to Love (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977), p. 27.Google Scholar
153. King, Martin Luther Jr., “Nobel Lecture: The Quest for Peace and Justice” (Nobelprize.org),.Google Scholar
154. King, Jr.Google Scholar
155. King, Jr.Google Scholar
156. King, Jr.Google Scholar
157. Nietzsche, Friedrich, Ecce Homo, in Basic Writings of Nietzsche, Kaufmann, Walter, ed., trans., (New York: Modern Library, 2000), “Why I am a Destiny,” sec. 5.Google Scholar
158. Nietzsche, Friedrich, The Gay Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1887/2001), sec. 382.Google Scholar
159. Nietzsche, , Will to Power, sec. 957.Google Scholar
160. Nietzsche, Friedrich, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, trans. byParkes, Graham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1883/2005), book IV, sec. 1.Google Scholar
161. Lewis, C.S. C.S.The Abolition of Man (New York: HarperOne, 2001).Google Scholar
162. Fukuyama, , 1992, pp. xxi–xxii.Google Scholar
163. Fukuyama, , 1992, p. 301.Google Scholar
164. Fukuyama, , 1992, p. 188.Google Scholar
165. Nietzsche, , Beyond Good and Evil, sec. 202.Google Scholar
166. Nietzsche, , The Gay Science, sec. 335.Google Scholar
167. Nietzsche, , Beyond Good and Evil, sec. 262.Google Scholar
168. Nietzsche, , Will to Power, sec. 866.Google Scholar
169. Richardson, John, “Nietzsche contra Darwin,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 2002, LXV(3): 537–575.Google Scholar
170. Nietzsche, , Will to Power, secs.883–885.Google Scholar
171. Moore, Gregory, “Nietzsche and evolutionary theory,” in A Companion to Nietzsche, Pearson, Keith Ansell, ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2009), pp. 517–531, at p. 525.Google Scholar
172. Nietzsche, , Beyond Good and Evil, sec. 264.Google Scholar
173. Jablonka, Eva and Lamb, Marion, “Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance,” in Evolution: The Extended Synthesis, Pigliucci, Massimo and Muller, Gerd B., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), pp. 137–174.Google Scholar
174. Muller, Gerd, “Epigenetic innovation,” in Evolution: The Extended Synthesis, Pigliucci, Massimo and Muller, Gerd B., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), pp. 307–332.Google Scholar
175. Kaufmann, Walter, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Pscychologist, Anti-Christ (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968), chap. 10.Google Scholar
176. Richardson, .Google Scholar
177. Moore, .Google Scholar
178. Schact, , 1985, p. 335.Google Scholar
179. Richardson, , p. 571.Google Scholar
180. Richardson, , p. 571.Google Scholar
181. Nietzsche, , Will to Power, sec. 864.Google Scholar
182. Pigliucci, Massimo and Muller, Gerd B., Evolution: The Extended Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
183. Avital, Eytan and Jablonka, Eva, Animal Traditions: Behavioural Inheritance in Evolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).Google Scholar
184. Baker, Dian, “Epigenetics 101: Why Grandmothers are Important,” Summer Institute on Neurodevelopmental Disorders (Davis, CA: UC Davis Mind Institute, 2010), http://www.talkminer.com/viewtalk.jsp?videoid=7YXm5j8qZaA&q=green%20monsterGoogle Scholar
185. Fukuyama, Francis, Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution (New York: Picador, 2003).Google Scholar
186. Fukuyama, , 2003, p. 15.Google Scholar
187. Fukuyama, , 2003, pp. 41–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
188. Stock, Gregory and Campbell, John, “Engineering the human germline,” in Engineering the Human Germline: An Exploration of the Science and Ethics of Altering the Genes We Pass to Our Children, Stock, Gregory and Campbell, John, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 3.Google Scholar
189. Campbell, John and Stock, Gregory, “A vision for practical human germline engineering,” in Engineering the Human Germline: An Exploration of the Science and Ethics of Altering the Genes We Pass to Our Children, Stock, Gregory and Campbell, John, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 10.Google Scholar
190. Katoh, Motonobu, Ayabe, Fumiaki, Norikane, Satoko, Okada, Teruaki, Masumoto, Hiroshi and Horike, Shin-ichi, “Construction of a novel human artificial chromosome vector for gene delivery,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 2004, 321(2):280–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
191. Kazuki, Y. et al., “Refined human artificial chromosome vectors for gene therapy and animal transgenesis,” Gene Therapy, 2011, 18(4):384–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
192. Campbell, and Stock, , pp. 15–16.Google Scholar
193. Campbell, and Stock, , pp. 15–16.Google Scholar
194. Walker, , 2009, p. 28.Google Scholar
195. Carmen, Ira, Politics in the Laboratory: The Constitution of Human Genomics (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004); Singer, 2011, pp. 59–60.Google Scholar
196. Campbell, John, Hood, Leroy, Koshland, Daniel Jr., Capecchi, Mario, French Anderson, W., Rose, Michael R., Silver, Lee M., Bonnicksen, Andrea, Fletcher, John, and Watson, James, Moderated by Gregory Stock, “A panel discussion,” in Engineering the Human Germline: An Exploration of the Science and Ethics of Altering the Genes We Pass to Our Children, Stock, Gregory and Campbell, John, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 73–95.Google Scholar
197. Fletcher, John and French Anderson, W., “Germline gene therapy: A new stage of debate,” Law, Medicine and Health Care, 1992, 20(1–2):26–39, at p. 29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
198. Annas, George, Andrews, Lori, and Isasi, Rosario“Protecting the endangered human: Toward an international treaty prohibiting cloning and inheritable alterations,” American Journal of Law and Medicine, 2002, 28(2–3): 151–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
199. Knoppers, Bartha Maria and LeBris, Sonia, “Genetic choices: A paradigm for prospective international ethics?” Politics and the Life Sciences, 1994, 13(2):228–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
200. Gunderson, Martin, “Enhancing human rights: How the use of human rights treaties to prohibit genetic engineering weakens human rights,” Journal of Evolution and Technology, 2008, 18(1): 27–34.Google Scholar
201. Bonnicksen, Andrea, “National and international approaches,” Politics and the Life Sciences, 1994, 13(1):39–49, at p. 49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
202. Council of Europe, Convention for the protection of human rights and dignity of the human being with regard to the application of biology and medicine: Convention on human rights and biomedicine, 1997, http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/treaties/html/164.htm; UNESCO, Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights, 1997, http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/genome.htm.Google Scholar
203. Campbell, , Hood, , et al., p. 85.Google Scholar
204. Campbell, , Hood, , et al., p. 94.Google Scholar
205. Campbell, , Hood, , et al., p. 95.Google Scholar
206. Fukuyama, , 2003, p. 101.Google Scholar
207. Lewis, .Google Scholar
208. Rittel, Horst and Webber, Melvin, “Dilemmas in a general theory of planning,” Policy Sciences, 1973, 4(2):155–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
209. Levin, Kelly, Cashore, Benjamin, Bernstein, Steven, and Auld, Graeme, “Playing it forward: Path dependency, progressive incrementalism, and the ‘super wicked’ problem of global climate change,” Policy Science, 2012, 45(2):123–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
210. Levin, et al.p. 125.Google Scholar
211. Levin, et al.p. 125.Google Scholar
212. Levin, et al.p. 134.Google Scholar