Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T17:35:53.290Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

From Private to Religious Patriarchy: Gendered Consequences of Faith-Based Welfare Provision in Germany

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2017

Josef Hien
Josef Hien*
Affiliation:
University of Milan
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Josef Hien, Social Science Research Center Berlin (WZB), Department of Democracy and Democratization, Reichpietschufer 50, 10117 Berlin, Germany. E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Over one million people work for a faith-based welfare provider in Germany. Caritas and Diakonie, the largest faith-based providers in Germany enjoy prerogatives that do not exist in other countries. This particular group of faith-based organizations is exempt from federal labor law and discrimination clauses, which results in arbitrary, and in other cases, institutional, forms of discrimination against particular social groups in society. Research has focused on the institutional regulation of faith-based practice in Germany. Much less attention has been devoted to the faith component within faith-based welfare provision. This study traces the evolution of church doctrine and its impact on the care and employment practices of faith-based welfare providers in Germany from the 1950s to the present. It argues that the conservative ideology of these welfare providers amplifies the negative effects of gendered occupational regimes.

Type
Articles
Information
Politics and Religion , Volume 10 , Issue 3 , September 2017 , pp. 515 - 542
Copyright
Copyright © Religion and Politics Section of the American Political Science Association 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I want to thank three anonymous reviewers for great comments and critique. Elin Hellquist for never getting tired of giving stimulating input on the many different versions of this manuscript. Karin Gottschall and the social policy Colloquium at the University of Bremen for inviting me to present this paper at an early stage, Margarita Estevez-Abe for comments during another presentation at the Collegio Carlo Alberto in Turin. Sascha Kneip at the WZB and Anton Hemerijck at the Collegio for pushing this forward with their good thoughts.

References

REFERNCES

Bäckström, Anders, and Davie, Grace. 2011. “Welfare and Religion in Europe: Themes, Theories and Tensions.” In Welfare and Religion in 21st Century Europe, Farnham, eds. Bäckström, Anders, Davie, Grace, Edgardh, Ninna, and Pettersson, Per. Burlington: Ashgate, 151–172.Google Scholar
Baglio, De Lauso, and Nanni, Marinaro. 2012. “La Rivelazione: Prinicpali Risultati E Approfondamenti Tematici (The Revelation: Central Results and Thematic Investigation).” In Opere Per Il Bene Commune, Rivelazione Dei Servizi Socio-Assistenziali E Sanitari Ecclesiali in Italia (Works for the Common Good, Revelation of the Social-Assistance Sector of the Church in Italy). Bologna: Edizioni Dehoniane.Google Scholar
Beaumont, Justin. 2008. “Faith Action on Urban Social Issues.” doi:10.1177/0042098008094871.Google Scholar
Beaumont, Justin, and Cloke, Paul. eds. 2012. Faith-Based Organisations and Exclusion in European Cities. Bristol: Policy Press.Google Scholar
Beaumont, Justin, and Dias, Candice. 2008. “Faith-Based Organisations and Urban Social Justice in the Netherlands.” doi:10.1111/j.1467-9663.2008.00479.x.Google Scholar
Béland, Daniel, Carstensen, Martin B., and Seabrooke, Leonard. 2016. “Ideas, Political Power and Public Policy.” Journal of European Public Policy 23:315–317.Google Scholar
Berman, Sheri. 1998. The Social Democratic Moment: Ideas and Politics in the Making of Interwar Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Besenthal, Andrea, and Lang, Cornelia. 2004. “Erwerbsorientierung von Frauen Und Einstellungen Zur Erwerbstätigkeit (Occupational Trends of Women and Attitudes towards Occupation).” www.iwh-halle.de/e/publik/wiwa/1-04-3.pdf (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Bielefeld, Wolfgang, and Cleveland, William Suhs. 2013. “Defining Faith-Based Organizations and Understanding Them through Research.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 42:468–494.Google Scholar
Bischofssynode, . 2015. “Relatio Synodi (Report on the Synod).” www.dbk.de/fileadmin/redaktion/diverse_downloads/presse_2015/Relatio-Abschlussbericht-Synode-2015.pdf (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Blyth, Mark. 2002. Great Transformations: Economic Ideas and Institutional Change in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Blyth, Mark. 2003. “Structures Do Not Come with an Instruction Sheet: Interests, Ideas, and Progress in Political Science.” Perspectives on Politics 1:695–706.Google Scholar
Blyth, Mark. 2016. “The New Ideas Scholarship in the Mirror of Historical Institutionalism: A Case of Old Whines in New Bottles?” Journal of European Public Policy 23:464–471.Google Scholar
Bode, Ingo. 2003. “A New Agenda for European Charity: Catholic Welfare and Organizational Change in France and Germany.” Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations 14:205–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bösch, Frank. 2001. Die Adenauer-CDU: Gründung, Aufstieg Und Krise Einer Erfolgspartei; 1945–1969 (The Adenauer-CDU: Formation, Ascendance and Crisis of a Successful Party 1945–1969). Stuttgart: DtVerl-Anst.Google Scholar
Braun, Michael, Scott, Jacqueline, and Alwin, Duane F.. 1994. “Economic Necessity or Self-Actualization? Attitudes toward Women's Labour-Force Participation in East and West Germany.” European Sociological Review 10:29–47.Google Scholar
Briken, Kendra, Gottschall, Karin, Hils, Sylvia, and Kittel, Bernhard. 2014. “Wandel von Beschäftigung Und Arbeitsbeziehungen Im Öffentlichen Dienst in Deutschland — zur Erosion Einer Sozialstaatlichen Vorbildrolle (Change of Occupation and Employment Relations in the Public Sector in Germany — On the Erosion of a Welfare State Role Model).” Zeitschrift Für Sozialreform 60:123–148.Google Scholar
Burger, Reiner. 2013. “Köln Katholische Kliniken weisen Vergewaltigte ab (Cologne Catholic Clinics Refuse Raped).” www.faz.net/aktuell/gesellschaft/gesundheit/koeln-katholische-kliniken-weisen-vergewaltigte-ab-12028518.html (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Caritas, Deutschland. 1997. “Leitbild Des Deutschen Caritasverbandes (Concept of the German Caritas Association).” www.caritas.de/glossare/leitbild-des-deutschen-caritasverbandes (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Caritas, Espanola. 2013. “Memoria 2013 Resumen (Memory 2013 Summary).” www.caritaspamplona.org/memoria-caritas-espanola-2013 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Caritas, Österreich. 2013. “Caritas Jahresberichte 2002–2013 (Caritas Annual Reports 2002–2013).” www.caritas.at/service-downloads/jahresberichte (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Christlich Demokratische Union. 1945a. “Frankfurter Leitsätze, Politische Leitsätze Der Christlich Demokratischen Union Stadtkreis Frankfurt Am Main, September 1945 (Frankfurt Principles, Political Principles of the Christian Democratic Union City of Frankfurt am Main, September 1945).” www.kas.de/upload/ACDP/CDU/Programme_Beschluesse/1945_Frankfurter-Leitsaetze.pdf (Accessed on February 13, 2017)Google Scholar
Christlich Demokratische Union. 1945b. “Gründungsaufruf Der CDU Berlin 26. Juni 1945 (Foundation Call of the CDU Berlin June 26, 1945).” www.kas.de/upload/ACDP/CDU/Programme_Beschluesse/1945_Gruendungsaufruf-Berlin.pdf (Accessed on February 13, 2017)Google Scholar
Cloke, Paul, Beaumont, Justin, and Williams, Andrew. eds. 2013. Working Faith: Faith-Based Organizations and Urban Social Justice. Milton Keynes: Paternoster.Google Scholar
Cloke, Paul, Thomas, Sam, and Williams, Andrew. 2013. “Faith in Action: Faith-Based Organizations, Welfare and Politics in the Contemporary City.” In Working Faith, eds. Cloke, Paul, Beaumont, Justin, and Williams, Andrew. Milton Keynes: Paternoster.Google Scholar
Crisp, Beth R. 2013. “Social Work and Faith-Based Agencies in Sweden and Australia.” International Social Work 56:343–355.Google Scholar
Dahme, Heinz-Jürgen, Kühnlein, Gertrud, Stefaniak, Anna, and Wohlfahrt, Norbert. 2012. Leiharbeit Und Ausgliederung in Diakonischen Sozialunternehmen: Der ‘Dritte Weg’ Zwischen Normativem Anspruch Und Sozialwirtschaftlicher Realität (Labor Leasing and Outsourcing in Social Enterprises of the Diakonie: The Third Way between Normative Claim and Socioeconomic Reality). Düsseldorf: Hans-Böckler-Stiftung.Google Scholar
Deutscher, Caritasverband. 2012. “Jahresbericht des Deutschen Caritasverbandes: Einblicke in die Arbeit der Zentrale des Deutschen Caritasverbandes (Annual Report of the German Caritas Association: Insights into the Work of the Headquarter of the German Caritas Association).” www.caritas.de/diecaritas/deutschercaritasverband/verbandszentrale/jahresbericht/jahresbericht (Accessed on Month Day, Year).Google Scholar
Diakonie, Austria. 2014. “Diakonie Austria Jahresberichte 2006–2012 (Diakonie Austria, Annual Reports 2006–2012).” www.diakonie.at/goto/de/publikationen/diakonie-jahresbericht (Accessed on November 27, 2014).Google Scholar
Diakonie, Deutschland. 2012. “Satzung Des Evangelischen Werkes Für Diakonie Und Entwicklung (Statute of the Evangelical Association for Diakonie and Development).” www.diakonie.de/satzung-9285.html (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Diakonisches Werk der EKD e.V. 2012. “Übergänge: Geschäftsbericht 2012 (Transition: Business Report 2012).” www.diakonie.de/media/GB-2012-20120614.pdf (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Die, Welt. 2015a. “Erzieherinnen Wegen Ihres Privatlebens Gekündigt (Educators dimissed because of their private life).” www.welt.de/regionales/bayern/article139876549/Erzieherinnen-wegen-ihres-Privatlebens-gekuendigt.html (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Die, Welt. 2015b. “Drei Bayerische Diözesen Lenken Ein (Educators Dismissed Because of Their Private Life).” www.welt.de/regionales/bayern/article147554159/Drei-bayerische-Dioezesen-lenken-ein.html (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Diehl, Jörg, and Roth, Anna-Lena. 2013. “Köln: Vergewaltigungsopfer von Katholischen Kliniken Abgewiesen (Cologne. Rape Victim Refused by Catholic Clinics).” www.spiegel.de/panorama/koeln-vergewaltigungsopfer-von-katholischen-kliniken-abgewiesen-a-878210.html (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Drobinski, Matthias. 2013a. “Köln — ‘Bedauerlicher Zwischenfall’ in Gottes Namen (Cologne – Regrettable Incident in the Name of God).” www.sueddeutsche.de/panorama/vergewaltigungsopfer-und-katholische-kliniken-bedauerlicher-zwischenfall-in-gottes-namen-1.1575954 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Drobinski, Matthias. 2013b. “Vergewaltigungsopfer und katholische Kliniken — Ein Dilemma (Rape victims and Catholic clinics — A Dilemma).” www.sueddeutsche.de/panorama/vergewaltigungsopfer-und-katholische-kliniken-dogmatisches-dilemma-1.1579442 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Drobinski, Matthias. 2015. “Abschluss Der Familiensynode: Rom Kann Sich Nicht Zu Reformen Durchringen (End of the Family Synod: Rome Can Not Agree on Reforms).” www.sueddeutsche.de/panorama/abschluss-der-familiensynode-rom-kann-sich-nicht-zu-reformen-durchringen-1.2706925 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Durkheim, Emile. 2008. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ebaugh, Helen Rose Fuchs, Saltzman, Janet, and Pipes, Paula F.. 2006. “Where's the Faith in Faith-Based Organizations? Measures and Correlates of Religiosity in Faith-Based Social Service Coalitions.” Social Forces 84:2259–2272.Google Scholar
Ebaugh, Helen Rose, Pipes, Paula F., Chafetz, Janet Saltzman, and Daniels, Martha. 2003. “Where's the Religion? Distinguishing Faith-Based from Secular Social Service Agencies.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 42:411–426.Google Scholar
German Protestant Church. 2013. Zwischen Autonomie Und Angewiesenheit, Familie Also Verlässliche Gemeinschaft. Eine Orientierungshilfe Des Rates Der Evangelischen Kirche Deutschland (EKD) (Between Independence and Dependence, Family as Reliable Community. A Aid to Orientation of the Council of the Evangelical Church of Germany). Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus.Google Scholar
Estevez-Abe, Margarita. 2009. “Gender, Inequality, and Capitalism: The ‘Varieties of Capitalism’ and Women.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 16:182–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 2007. “Bischof Mixa Lässt Nicht Locker (Bishop Mixa Does Not Give In).” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, February 23.Google Scholar
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 2012. “Religionsgemeinschaften Kirche darf lesbische Erzieherin in Elternzeit nicht kündigen (Religious community. Church Cannot Dismiss Educator during Parental Leave).” www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/religionsgemeinschaften-kirche-darf-lesbische-erzieherin-in-elternzeit-nicht-kuendigen-11791577.html (Accessed on January 1, 2017).Google Scholar
Fix, Birgit, and Fix, Elisabeth. 2005. Kirche Und Wohlfahrtsstaat: Soziale Arbeit Kirchlicher Wohlfahrtsorganisationen Im Westeuropäischen Vergleich (Religious Community. Church Cannot Dismiss Educator during Parental Leave). Freiburg: Lambertus-Verlag.Google Scholar
Fleckenstein, Timo. 2011. “The Politics of Ideas in Welfare State Transformation: Christian Democracy and the Reform of Family Policy in Germany.” Social Politics 18:543–571.Google Scholar
Friedrichs, Jürgen, and Klöckner, Jennifer. 2011. Faith-Based Organisations and Social Exclusion in Germany. Leuven: Acco.Google Scholar
Gekeler, Corinna. 2013. Loyal Dienen: Diskriminierendes Arbeitsrecht Bei Caritas, Diakonie Und Co (Serving Loyal: Discriminating Employment Law of Caritas, Diakonie and Others). Aschaffenburg: Alibri Bücher.Google Scholar
Gerlach, Irene. 2010. Familienpolitik (Family Policy). Wiesbaden: VS Verlfür Sozialwiss.Google Scholar
Göcmen, Ipek. 2011. “The Politics of Religiously Motivated Welfare Provision.” www//kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/id/eprint/4194 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Hien, Josef. 2012. Competing Ideas: The Religious Foundations of the Italian and German Welfare States. Florence: European University Institute.Google Scholar
Hien, Josef. 2013. “Unsecular Politics in a Secular Environment: The Case of Germany's Christian Democratic Family Policy.” German Politics 22:441–460.Google Scholar
Hien, Josef. 2014. “The Return of Religion? The Paradox of Faith-Based Welfare Provision in a Secular Age.” www.mpifg.de/pu/mpifg_dp/dp14-9.pdf (Accessed on February 14, 2017).Google Scholar
Hackworth, Jason. 2009. “Neoliberalism, Partiality, and the Politics of Faith-Based Welfare in the United States.” Studies in Political Economy 84.Google Scholar
Hackworth, Jason. 2012. Faith Based: Religious Neoliberalism and the Politics of Welfare in the United States. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.Google Scholar
Harris, Margaret. 1995. “Quiet Care: Welfare Work and Religious Congregations.” Journal of Social Policy 24:53.Google Scholar
Henninger, Annette, Wimbauer, Christine, and Dombrowski, Rosine. 2008. “Demography as a Push toward Gender Equality? Current Reforms of German Family Policy.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 15:287–314.Google Scholar
Jawad, Rana. 2012. “Thinking about Religious Welfare and Rethinking Social Policy in the British Context.” Social Policy and Society 11:613–624.Google Scholar
Johnsen, Sarah. 2014. “Where's the ‘Faith’ in ‘Faith-Based’ Organisations? The Evolution and Practice of Faith-Based Homelessness Services in the UK.” Journal of Social Policy 43:413–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahl, Sigrun. 2009. “Religious Doctrines and Poor Relief: A Different Causal Pathway.” In Religion, Class Coalitions and Welfare States, eds. Van Kersbergen, Kees, and Manow, Philip. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 267–296.Google Scholar
Kamann, Matthias. 2012. “Warum Die Kirche Lesbische Erzieherin Entlassen Darf (Why the Chruch Can Not Dismiss a Lesbian Educator).” www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article108575212/Warum-die-Kirche-lesbische-Erzieherin-entlassen-darf.html (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Karrenberg, Friedrich, and Schober, Theodor. 1980. Evangelisches Soziallexikon (Evangelic Social Encyclopedia). Stuttgart: Kreuz-Verl.Google Scholar
Nachrichten, Katholische. 2014. “Ein Verhältnis Mit Dem Vorsitzenden Der Örtlichen CDU-Fraktion (An affair with the chairman of the local CDU faction).” www.kath.net/news/35725 (Accessed on November 26, 2014).Google Scholar
Kreß, Hartmut. 2014. Die Sonderstellung Der Kirchen Im Arbeitsrecht — Sozialethisch Vertretbar: Ein Deutscher Sonderweg Im Konflikt Mit Grundrechten (The Special Status of the Church in Employment Law. A German Special Path in Conflict with Basic Law). Baden-Baden: Nomos.Google Scholar
Kroos, Daniela, and Gottschall, Karin. 2012. “Dualization and Gender in Social Services.” In The Age of Dualization: The Changing Face of Inequality in Deindustrializing Societies, eds. Emmenegger, Patrick, Häusermann, Silija, Palier, Bruno, and Seeleib-Kaiser, Martin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 100–124.Google Scholar
Lewis, Jane. 1997. “Gender and Welfare Regimes: Further Thoughts.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 4:160–177.Google Scholar
Liminski, Jürgen. 2008. “Ehe Und Familie in Christlicher Sicht (Marriage and Family from a Christian Perspective).” In Handbuch Der Katholischen Soziallehre (Handbook of Catholic Social Teaching), ed. Rauscher, Anton. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.Google Scholar
Listl, Joseph. 1986. “Die Arbeitsverhältnisse Der Kirchlichen Dienstnehmer in Der Rechtsprechung Der Gerichte Der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Working Conditions of Church Employees in the Case-Law of the Courts of the Federal German Republic).” Jahrbuch Für Christliche Sozialwissenschaften 27:131.Google Scholar
Lührs, Hermann. 2006. “Kirchliche Arbeitsbeziehungen: Die Entwicklung Der Beschäftigungsverhältnisse in Den Beiden Gro's Sen Kirchen Und Ihren Wohlfahrtsverbänden (Church Labor Relations: The Development of the Employment Relations of the Two Major Churches and Their Welfare Associations).” www.publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/handle/10900/47541 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Lührs, Hermann. 2008. “Arbeit in Der Kirche. Analyse Einer Bundesweiten Befragung von Beschäftigten in Den Beiden Gro's Sen Kirchen Und Ihren Wohlfahrtsverbänden Diakonie Und Caritas (Work in Church. Analysis of a Nationwide Survey of Employees of Employees of the Two Major Churches and Their Welfare Associations Diakonie and Caritas).” www.tst-bibliographie.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/handle/10900/47589 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Lührs, Hermann. 2010. Die Zukunft Der Arbeitsrechtlichen Kommissionen: Arbeitsbeziehungen in Den Kirchen Und Ihren Wohlfahrtsverbänden Diakonie Und Caritas Zwischen Kontinuität, Wandel Und Umbruch (The Future of Church Works Councils: Employee-Employer Relations in the Churches and Their Welfare Associations Diakonie and Caritas between Continuity, Change and Turmoil). Baden-Baden: Nomos.Google Scholar
Manow, Philip. 2004. “The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Esping-Andersen's Regime Typology and the Religious Roots of the Western Welfare State.” www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/44286 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Manow, Philip, and Van Kersbergen, Kees. 2009. “Religion and the Western Welfare State—The Theoretical Context.” In Religion, Class Coalitions, and Welfare States, eds. Van Kersbergen, Kees, and Manow, Philip. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1–38.Google Scholar
Marx, . 2010. “Interview Mit Bischof Reinhard Marx Mit R. Pfister Zur Familienpolitik.” Der Speigel, November 1.Google Scholar
Mayr, Stefan. 2012. “Bistum Augsburg: Lesbische Erzieherin Siegt Gegen Kirche (Diocese Augsburg: Lesbian Educator Wins against Church).” www.sueddeutsche.de/bayern/lesbische-erzieherin-siegt-vor-gericht-wer-fuer-die-kirche-arbeitet-ist-selber-schuld-1.1387341 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Meritt, A.J., and Meritt, R.L.. 1970. Public Opinion in Occupied Germany, The OMGUS Surveys. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Minkenberg, Michael. 2003. “The Policy Impact of Church—State Relations: Family Policy and Abortion in Britain, France, and Germany.” West European Politics 26:195.Google Scholar
Morgan, Kimberly J. 2002. “Forging the Frontiers between State, Church, and Family: Religious Cleavages and the Origins of Early Childhood Education and Care Policies in France, Sweden, and Germany.” Politics & Society 30:113–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Müller, Eva. 2013. “Arbeitgeber Kirche: Getauft Für Den Job (Church as Employer: Baptized for the Job).” www.spiegel.de/karriere/berufsleben/kirche-als-arbeitgeber-angestellte-lassen-sich-fuer-den-job-taufen-a-876868.html (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Nassal, Dario. 2014. “Julia Pink spricht über ihren Jobverlust als Erzieherin (Julia Pink Talks about Her Loss of Job as Educator).” www.sueddeutsche.de/bayern/jobverlust-wegen-pornodrehs-das-ist-doch-laecherlich-1.2193358 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Orloff, Ann Shola. 2009. “Gendering the Comparative Analysis of Welfare States: An Unfinished Agenda.” Sociological Theory 27:317–343.Google Scholar
Peck, Jamie, and Tickell, Adam. 2002. “Neoliberalizing Space.” Antipode 34:380–404.Google Scholar
XI, Pius. 1931. “Quadragesimo Anno.” www.w2.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_pxi_enc_19310515_quadragesimo-anno.html (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Pollack, Detlef, and Pickel, Gert. 2003. “De-Institutionalization of Religion and Religious Individualization in Eastern and Western Germany.” doi:10.1007/s11577-003-0085-6.Google Scholar
Rusciano, Frank. 1992. “Rethinking the Gender Gap: The Case of West German Elections, 1949–1987.” Comparative Politics 24:335.Google Scholar
Schädler, Karin. 2010. “Diskriminierung in Katholischen Einrichtungen: Tendenz Schwulen- Und Lesbenfeindlich (Discrimination in Catholic Facilities: Tendencially Hostile to Gays and Lesbians).” www.taz.de/!5142797 (Accessed on January 1, 2016).Google Scholar
Schmid, Josef. 1995. “Verbändewohlfahrt Im Modernen Wohlfahrtsstaat: Strukturbildende Effekte Des Staat-Kirche-Konflikts (Associational Welfare in the Modern Welfare State: Structuring Effects of the State-Church Conflict).” Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung 88–118.Google Scholar
Schmidt, Vivien A. 2008. “Discursive Institutionalism: The Explanatory Power of Ideas and Discourse.” Political Science 11:303.Google Scholar
Secours Catholique Caritas France. 2013. “L'Essentielle 2013 Origine et Emloie Des Resources (The “Essential” 2013 Origin and Emloie of Resources).” www.secours-catholique.org/sites/scinternet/files/IMG/pdf/-Essentiel_2013.pdf (Accessed on February 13, 2016).Google Scholar
Sider, Ronald J., and Unruh, Heidi R.. 2004. “Typology of Religious Characteristics of Social Service and Educational Organizations and Programs.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 33:109–134.Google Scholar
Smith, Steven Rathgeb, and Sosin, Michael R.. 2001. “The Varieties of Faith-Related Agencies.” Public Administration Review 61:651–670.Google Scholar
Steinmo, Sven. 2010. The Evolution of Modern States: Sweden, Japan, and the United States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutherland, Callum. 2014. “Political Discourse and Praxis in the Glasgow Church.” Political Geography 38:23–32.Google Scholar
Tennstedt, Florian, and Schulz, Günther. 2007. Geschichte Der Sozialpolitik in Deutschland Seit 1945, Band 3: Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1949–1957. Bewältigung Der Kriegsfolgen, Rückkehr Zur Sozialpolitischen Normalität (History of Social Policy in Germany since 1945, Volume 3: Federal Republic of Germany 1947–1957. The Overcoming of the Consequences of the War, Return to Normal Social Politics). Baden-Baden: Nomos.Google Scholar
Van Kersbergen, Kees. 1995. Social Capitalism. A Study of Christian Democracy and the Welfare State. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Wiliarty, Sarah Elise. 2010. The CDU and the Politics of Gender in Germany: Bringing Women to the Party. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zehavi, Amos. 2013. “Religious Supply, Welfare State Restructuring and Faith-Based Social Activities.” Political Studies 61:561–579.CrossRefGoogle Scholar