Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T17:39:36.817Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Role-Model-In-Chief: Understanding a Michelle Obama Effect

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2019

Christina S. Haynes  and
Ray Block Jr.
Christina S. Haynes
Affiliation:
The University of Kentucky
Ray Block Jr.
Affiliation:
The University of Kentucky
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Because of the national conversation about her status as a role model, the former First Lady of the United States (FLOTUS) presents an opportunity to analyze an Obama effect—particularly, the idea that Michelle Obama's prominence as a political figure can influence, among other things, citizens’ impressions of black women in America. Using evidence from the 2011 Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation/Washington Post survey, we demonstrate that Michelle Obama's status as a role model operates as a “moderated mediator”: it transmits the effect of the former FLOTUS’ media activities to respondents’ racial attitudes, and the degree to which role model status functions as a mediating variable differs by race (and, to a lesser degree, by gender). Thus, our research provides both a theoretical and an empirical contribution to the Obama-effect literature.

Keywords

Michelle Obamarole modelsracegendermedia exposurepolicy preferencepublic opinionmoderated mediation analysis
Type
Research Article
Information
Politics & Gender , Volume 15 , Special Issue 3: Special Symposium on Michelle Obama , September 2019 , pp. 365 - 402
Copyright
Copyright © The Women and Politics Research Section of the American Political Science Association 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abramowitz, Alan I. 2010. “Transformation and Polarization: The 2008 Presidential Election and the New American Electorate.” Electoral Studies 29 (December): 594–603.Google Scholar
Abramowitz, Alan I. 2012. “Grand Old Tea Party: Partisan Polarization and the Rise of the Tea Party Movement.” In Steep: The Precipitous Rise of the Tea Party, eds. Rosenthal, Lawrence and Trost, Christine. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 195–211.Google Scholar
Altman, Douglas G., and Bland, J. Martin. 2003. “Interaction Revisited: The Difference between Two Estimates.” British Medical Journal 326 (January): 219.Google Scholar
Anu, Christine. 2017. “Michelle Obama, Thank You for Being The Role Model I Didn't Know I Needed.” Huffington Post, January 27. http://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/christine-anu/michelle-obama-thank-you-for-being-the-rolemodel-i-didnt-know/. Accessed April 19, 2017.Google Scholar
Aronson, Joshua, Jannone, Sheana, McGlone, Matthew, and Johnson-Campbell, Tanisha. 2009. “The Obama Effect: An Experimental Test.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45 (July): 957–960.Google Scholar
Associated Press. 2016. “Three Sweet Reasons These Girls See Michelle Obama As Their Role Model.” http://www.refinery29.com/2016/12/134191/michelle-obama-rolemodel-little-girls. Accessed March 17, 2018.Google Scholar
Baca Zinn, Maxine, and Dill, Bonnie Thornton. 1996. “Theorizing Difference from Multiracial Feminisms.” Feminist Studies 2 (July): 321–331.Google Scholar
Barabas, Jason. 2008. “Presidential Policy Initiatives: How the Public Learns about State of the Union Proposals from the Mass Media.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 38 (June): 195–222.Google Scholar
Baron, Reuben M., and Kenny, David A.. 1986. The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (December): 1173–1182.Google Scholar
Bertaki, Monica. 2012. “Mother Knows Best: The Rhetorical Persona of Michelle Obama and the ‘Let's Move’ Campaign.” Master's thesis, University of Nevada, Las Vegas.Google Scholar
Block, Ray Jr. 2011. “Backing Barack Because He's Black: Racially Motivated Voting in the 2008 Election.” Social Science Quarterly 92 (June): 423–446.Google Scholar
Block, Ray Jr.. 2017. “Race, Gender, and Media Coverage of Michelle Obama.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 5 (April): 161–165.Google Scholar
Block, Ray Jr., and Haynes, Christina S.. 2014. “Taking to the Airwaves: Using Content Analyses of Survey Toplines and Filmographies to Test the ‘Michelle Obama Image Transformation’ (MOIT) Hypothesis.” National Political Science Review 16 (September): 97–114.Google Scholar
Block, Ray Jr., and Haynes, Christina S.. 2015. “‘Mom-In-Chief’ Rhetoric as a Lens for Understanding Policy Advocacy: A Thematic Analysis of Video Footage from Michelle Obama's Speeches.” In Exploring the C-SPAN Archives: Advancing the Research Agenda, ed. Browning, Robert X.. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 165–190.Google Scholar
Block, Ray Jr., and Lewis, Angela K.. 2018. “The ‘Obama Effect,’ Revisited: A Macro-Level and Longitudinal Exploration of the Influence of Barack Obama's Media Presence on Racialized Political Party Polarization.” In After Obama: African American Politics in the Post-Obama America, eds. Shaw, Todd C., Brown, Robert A., and McCormick, Joseph P. II. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Blow, Charles M. 2009. “The Magic of Michelle.” New York Times, October 23. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/24/opinion/24blow.html. Accessed May 27, 2018.Google Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence, and Gilliam, Franklin D.. “Race, sociopolitical participation, and black empowerment.” American Political Science Review 84, no. 2 (1990): 377–393.Google Scholar
Boyd, Brenda J. 1997. “Teacher Response to Superhero Play: To Ban or Not to Ban?” Childhood Education 74 (October): 23–28.Google Scholar
Branton, Regina P., and Jones, Bradford S.. 2005. “Reexamining Racial Attitudes: The Conditional Relationship Between Diversity and Socioeconomic Environment.” American Journal of Political Science 49(April): 359–372.Google Scholar
Bristor, Julia M., Lee, Renee Gravois, and Hunt, Michelle R.. 1995. “Race and Ideology: African-American Images in Television Advertising.” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 14 (Spring): 48–59.Google Scholar
Brodish, Amanda B., Brazy, Paige C., and Devine, Patricia G.. 2008. “More Eyes on the Prize: Variability in White Americans’ Perceptions of Progress toward Racial Equality.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35 (April): 513–527.Google Scholar
Bryant, Alison L., and Zimmerman, Marc A.. 2003. “Role Models and Psychosocial Outcomes among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Adolescent Research 18 (January): 36–67.Google Scholar
Burgess, Simon. 2016. “Michelle Obama and and English School: The Power of Inspiration.” Department of Economics, University of Bristol. http://simonburgesseconomics.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/EGA-paper-20160627.pdf. Accessed September 10, 2018.Google Scholar
Burns, Nancy, Schlozman, Key Lehman, and Verba, Sidney. 2001. The Private Roots of Public Action: Gender, Equality, and Political Participation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Burrell, Barbara, Elder, Laurel, and Frederick, Brian. 2011. “From Hillary to Michelle: Public Opinion and the Spouses of Presidential Candidates.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 41(March): 156–176.Google Scholar
Byars, Angela M., and Hackett, Gail. 1998. “Applications of Social Cognitive Theory to the Career Development of Women of Color.” Applied and Preventive Psychology 7 (December): 255–267.Google Scholar
Cappellano, Kathleen L. 2011. “Let's Move-Tools to Fuel a Healthier Population.” Nutrition Today 46 (June): 149–154.Google Scholar
Carlson, Erin. 2012. “2012 Democratic Convention: Michelle Obama's Tracy Reese Dress Steals Spotlight.” Hollywood Reporter, September 5. https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/fash-track/2012-democratic-convention-michelle-obama-tracy-reese-dress-368069. Accessed May 27, 2018.Google Scholar
Carter, Niambi M., and Dowe, Pearl Ford. 2015. “The Racial Exceptionalism of Barack Obama.” Journal of African American Studies 19 (2): 105–119.Google Scholar
Cassese, Erin, and Barnes, Tiffany D.. 2018. “Reconciling Sexism and Women's Support for Republican Candidates: A Look at Gender, Class, and Whiteness in the 2012 and 2016 Presidential Races.” Political Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9468-2. Accessed September 10, 2018.Google Scholar
Clark, Paul W., Martin, Craig A., and Bush, Alan J.. 2001. “The Effect of Role Model Influence on Adolescents’ Materialism and Marketplace Knowledge.” Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice 9 (October): 27–36.Google Scholar
Coleman, Arica L. 2010. “Michelle Obama on My Mind.” In Who Should Be First? Feminists Speak Out on the 2008 Presidential Campaign, ed. Guy-Sheftall, Beverly and Cole, Johnnetta Betsch. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 215–230.Google Scholar
Collins, Jonathan, and Block, Ray Jr. 2018. “Fired Up, Ready to Go: The Impact of Age, Campaign Enthusiasm, and Civic Duty on African American Voting.” Political Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9488-y. Accessed September 10, 2018.Google Scholar
Columb, Corey, and Plant, Ashby. 2011. “Revisiting the Obama Effect. Exposure to Obama Reduces Implicit Prejudice.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (March): 499–501.Google Scholar
Connolly, Colleen. 2015. “Michelle Obama Talks About Growing Up on South Side at King College Prep Graduation.” Ward Room: Covering Chicago's Nine Political Influencers (July 9). https://www.nbcchicago.com/blogs/ward-room/michelle-obama-king-college-prep-commencement-hadiya-pendleton-306497781.htmlGoogle Scholar
Cooper, Brittney. 2010. A'n't I a Lady?: Race Women, Michelle Obama, and the Ever-Expanding Democratic Imagination.” Multi-Ethnic Literature of the U.S. 35 (Winter): 39–57.Google Scholar
Cottrell, Lesley, Neal, William A., Ice, Christa, Perez, Miriam K., and Piedimonte, Giovanni. 2011. “Metabolic Abnormalities in Children with Asthma.” American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 183 (February): 441–448.Google Scholar
Davis, Darren W., and Silver, Brian D.. “Stereotype threat and race of interviewer effects in a survey on political knowledge.” American Journal of Political Science 47, no. 1 (2003): 33–45.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 2001. Black Visions: The Roots of Contemporary African-American Political Ideologies. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
de Vreese, Claes H. And Boomgaarden, Hajo. 2006. “News, Political Knowledge, and Participation: The Differential Effects of News Media Exposure on Political Knowledge and Participation.” Acta Politica 41 (December): 317–341.Google Scholar
DiMaggio, Anthony. 2011. The Rise of the Tea Party: Political Discontent and Corporate Media in the Age of Obama. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Dow, B. J. 2014. “Michelle Obama, ‘Mom-in-Chief’: Gender, Race, and Familialism in Media Representations of the First Lady.” In The Rhetoric of Heroic Expectations: Establishing the Obama Presidency, eds. Vaughn, J. S. and Mercieca, J. R., 235-256. College Station: Texas A&M University Press.Google Scholar
Eibach, Richard P., and Keegan, Thomas. 2006. “Free at Last? Social Dominance, Loss Aversion, and White and Black Americans’ Differing Assessments of Racial Progress.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (March): 453–467.Google Scholar
Elder, Janet. 2007. “Will There Be an ‘Obama Effect.’ ” New York Times, May 16. https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/16/us/politics/16web-elder.html. Accessed January 17, 2009.Google Scholar
Elder, Laurel, and Frederick, Brian. 2017. “Perceptions of Candidate Spouses in the 2012 Presidential Election: The Role of Gender, Race, Religion, and Partisanship.” Politics, Groups, and Identities (June). https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2017.1338969. Accessed September 10, 2018.Google Scholar
Ellis, Clayton. 2012. “Let's Move in Schools Aims to Build off Olympic Momentum.” Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators 25 (January): 6.Google Scholar
Fishwick, Holly. 2016. “Why Michelle Obama Is the Ultimate Role Model for Women Everywhere.” https://www.heart.co.uk/showbiz/michelle-obama-ultimate-role-model-for-women/.Google Scholar
Gay, Claudine, and Tate, Katherine. 1998. “Doubly Bound: The Impact of Gender and Race on the Politics of Black Women.” Political Psychology 19 (March): 169–184.Google Scholar
Gay, Claudine. “The effect of black congressional representation on political participation.” American Political Science Review 95, no. 3 (2001): 589–602.Google Scholar
Gibson, Donald E. 2004. “Role Models in Career Development: New Directions for Theory and Research.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 65 (August): 134–156.Google Scholar
Gillespie, Andra. 2016. “Race, Perceptions of Femininity and the Power of the First Lady: A Comparative Analysis.” In Distinct Identities: Minority Women in U.S. Politics, edited by Brown, Nadia and Gershon, Sarah Allen, 234–251. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gillespie, Andra. 2018. “Race and Attitudes toward First Ladies from Hillary Clinton to Michelle Obama.” Invited talk at the University of Michigan, March 14. https://events.umich.edu/event/50898. Accessed September 10, 2018.Google Scholar
Goldman, Seth K. 2012. “Effects of the 2008 Obama Presidential Campaign on White Racial Prejudice.” Public Opinion Quarterly 76 (December): 663–687.Google Scholar
Goldman, Seth K., and Mutz, Diana C.. 2014. The Obama Effect: How the 2008 Campaign Changed White Racial Attitudes. New York: Russel Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Greenberg, Jayne D. 2011. “Let's Move! Miami.” Strategies, A Journal for Physical and Sports Educators 24 (January): 6–7.Google Scholar
Gries, Peter Hays, Crowson, H. Michael, and Cai, Huajian. 2011. “When Knowledge Is a Double-Edged Sword: Contact, Media Exposure, and American China Policy Preferences.” Journal of Social Issues 67 (December): 787–805.Google Scholar
Harris-Perry, Melissa V. 2011. Sister Citizen: Shame, Stereotypes, and Black Women in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 270–281.Google Scholar
Hayden, Sara. 2017. “Michelle Obama, Mom-in-Chief: The Racialized Rhetorical Contexts of Maternity.” Women's Studies in Communication 40(January): 11–28.Google Scholar
Hayes, Andrew F. 2013. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hawkins, Ariel. 2012. “Michelle Obama Convention Speech Dress Dazzles, Scores.” CNNPolitics.com, September 5. politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2012/09/05/michelle-obama-convention-speech-dress-dazzles-scores/ Accessed May 27, 2018.Google Scholar
Heflick, Nathan A., Goldenberg, Jamie L., Cooper, Douglas P., and Puvia, Elisa. 2011. “From Women to Objects: Appearance Focus, Target Gender, and Perceptions of Warmth, Morality and Competence.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (3): 572–581.Google Scholar
Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, Washington Post. Kaiser/Washington Post Black Women in America Survey, October, 2011 [survey questions]. USSSRS.12BLACKS.R03I. Social Science Research Solutions [producer]. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY: Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, iPOLL [distributor]. Accessed September 28, 2015.Google Scholar
Heron, Jackie. 2012. Let's Move in the Outdoors. North Mankato, MN: Magic Wagon.Google Scholar
Hicks, Raymond, and Tingley, Dustin. 2011. “Causal Mediation Analysis.” Stata Journal 11 (4): 605–619.Google Scholar
Hines, Ree. 2018. “Here's Why Michelle Obama Won't Run for President.” Today.com, April 6. https://www.today.com/news/michelle-obama-won-t-run-president-because-you-have-want-t126588. Accessed May 27, 2018.Google Scholar
Holloway, Jenae. 2017. “5 Times Michelle Obama Was Peak Black Girl Magic.” Glamour.com, News and Politics. http://www.glamour.com/story/5-times-michelle-obama-was-peak-black-girl-magic. Accessed May 3, 2017.Google Scholar
Holman, Mirya R., and Schneider, Monica C.. 2016. “Gender, Race, and Political Ambition: How Intersectionality and Frames Influence Interest in Political Office.” Politics, Groups, and Identities. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2016.1208105. Accessed September 28, 2015.Google Scholar
Hong, Mina, Valerio, Melissa, and Spencer, Michael. 2011. “Let's Get Moving: The Need for More Effective State-Level Physical Education Policies.” Family & Community Health 34 (January/March): 51–60.Google Scholar
How Can I Do Moderated Mediation in Stata? UCLA: Statistical Consulting Group. https://stats.idre.ucla.edu/stata/faq/how-can-i-do-moderated-mediation-in-stata/. Accessed May 3, 2017.Google Scholar
Hoyt, Crystal, Burnette, Jeni, and Innella, Audrey. 2012. “I Can Do That: The Impact of Implicit Theories on Leadership Role Model Effectiveness.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38 (February): 257–268.Google Scholar
Hulse, Carl. 2009. “Obama Is Sworn In as the 44th President.” New York Times, January 20. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/21/us/politics/20web-inaug2.html. Accessed May 3, 2017.Google Scholar
Hutchings, Vincent L., McClerking, Harwood K., and Charles, Guy-Uriel. 2004. “Congressional Representation of Black Interests: Recognizing the Importance of Stability.” Journal of Politics 66 (2): 450–468.Google Scholar
Italie, Leanne. 2016. “How Michelle Obama Became A Bigger Role Model than Beyonce: ‘She's Beautiful and She Makes Me Feel Beautiful Too.’” Independent.co.uk. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/michelle-obama-beyonce-knowles-rolemodel-bigger-empowerment-girls-a7494136.html. Accessed April 19, 2017.Google Scholar
Jackson, Christopher K. 2012. “‘Let's Move’: Examining First Lady Michelle Obama's Childhood Obesity Campaign in the News Media.” PhD dissertation, Howard University.Google Scholar
James, Lawrence R., and Brett, Jeanne M.. 1984. “Mediators, Moderators, and Tests for Mediation.” Journal of Applied Psychology 69 (May): 307–321.Google Scholar
Joseph, Ralina L. 2011. “‘Hope Is Finally Making A Comeback’: First Lady Reframed.” Communication, Culture & Critique 4 (March): 56–77.Google Scholar
Kahl, Mary L. 2009. “First Lady Michelle Obama: Advocate for Strong Families.” Communication & Critical/Cultural Studies 6 (August): 316–320.Google Scholar
Kaleem, Jaweed, Lee, Kurtis, and Jarvie, Jenny. 2017. “America Just Spent 8 Years with A Black President. For Many African Americans, It meant One Big Thing: Freedom To ‘Dream.’ ” Los Angeles Times, January 16. http://www.latimes.com/projects/la-na-obama-african-americans/. Accessed May 3, 2017.Google Scholar
Kanter, Rosebeth Moss. 1977. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Katz, David L. 2012. “Let's Move! Progress, Promise, and the Miles Left to Go.” Childhood Obesity 8 (January): 2–3.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Kristie. 2010. “Let's Move! AAP Joins White House Anti-Obesity Initiative to Promote Healthy, Active Living.” American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) News 4 (April): 20.Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald R., and Dale-Riddle, Allison. 2012. The End of Race? Obama, 2008, and Racial Politics in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
King, Gary, Tomz, Michael, and Wittenberg, Jason. 2000. ‘‘Making the Most of Statistical Analyses: Improving Interpretation and Presentation.’’ American Journal of Political Science 44 (April): 347–361.Google Scholar
Kluegel, James R., and Smith, Eliot R.. 1986. Beliefs about Inequality: Americans’ Views of What Is and What Ought to Be. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Knuckey, Jonathan, and Kim, Myunghee. 2016. “Evaluations of Michelle Obama as First Lady: The Role of Racial Resentment.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 46 (2): 365–386.Google Scholar
Kosuke, Imai, Keele, Luke, and Tingley, Dustin. 2010. “A General Approach to Causal Mediation Analysis.” Psychological Methods 15 (December): 309–334.Google Scholar
Kosuke, Imai, Keele, Luke, Tingley, Dustin, and Yamamoto, Teppei. 2011. “Unpacking the Black Box of Causality: Learning about Causal Mechanisms from Experimental and Observational Studies.” American Political Science Review 105 (November): 756–789.Google Scholar
Krysan, Maria, and Couper, Mick P.. 2006. “Race of Interviewer Effects: What Happens on the Web?” International Journal of Internet Science 1 (1): 17–28.Google Scholar
Jackson, B. W. III 2012. “Black Identity Development.” In New Perspectives on Racial Identity Development: Integrating Emerging Frameworks, eds. Wijeyesinghe, Charmaine L. and Jackson, Bailey W. III. New York: New York University Press, 33–50.Google Scholar
Judd, Charles M., and Kenny, David A.. 1981. “Process Analysis: Estimating Mediation in Treatment Evaluations.” Evaluation review 5, no. 5 (1981): 602–619.Google Scholar
Lewis-Beck, Michael S., and Tien, Charles. “The Job of President and the Jobs Model Forecast: Obama for ‘08?.” PS: Political Science & Politics 41, no. 4 (2008): 687–690.Google Scholar
Lewis-Beck, Michael S., Tien, Charles, and Nadeau, Richard. “Obama's missed landslide: a racial cost?.” PS: Political Science & Politics 43, no. 1 (2010): 69–76.Google Scholar
Lockwood, Penelope. 2006. “Someone Like Me Can Be Successful: Do College Students Need Same-Gender Role Models?” Psychology of Women Quarterly 30 (March): 36–46.Google Scholar
Lockwood, Penelope, and Kunda, Ziva. 1997. “Superstars and Me: Predicting the Impact of Role Models on the Self.” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 73 (July): 91–103.Google Scholar
Lockwood, Penelope, Jordan, Christian H., and Kunda, Ziva. 2002. “Motivation by Positive or Negative Role Models: Regulatory Focus Determines Who Will Best Inspire Us.” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 83 (October): 854–864.Google Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane, and Tate, Katherine. 1992. “Race Trumps Gender: The Thomas Nomination in the Black Community.” Political Science & Politics 25(3): 488–492.Google Scholar
Manza, Jeff, and Brooks, Clem. 1999. Social Cleavages and Political Change: Voter Alignments and US Party Coalitions. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Marschall Melissa, J., and Stolle, Dietlind 2004. “Race and the City: Neighborhood Context and the Development of Generalized Trust.” Political Behavior 26 (June): 125–153.Google Scholar
Mason, Patrick L. 2017. “Not Black-Alone: The 2008 Presidential Election and Racial Self-Identification among African Americans,” Review of Black Political Economy 44 (June): 55–76.Google Scholar
Marx, David M., Ko, Sei Jin, Friedman, Ray A.. 2009. “The ‘Obama Effect’: How A Salient Role Model Reduces Race-Based Performance Differences.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45 (July): 953–956.Google Scholar
Marx, David M., and Roman, Jasmin S.. 2002. “Female Role Models: Protecting Women's Math Test Performance.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (September): 1183–1193.Google Scholar
Maxon, Seth, and Stahl, Jeremy. 2017. “Hell Yes, I Remember That Moment.” Slate.com, January 10. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2017/01/what_it_was_like_to_be_at_obama_s_2008_victory_speech.html . Accessed May 3, 2017.Google Scholar
McCall, Leslie. 2005. “The Complexity of Intersectionality.” Signs 30 (Spring): 1771–1800.Google Scholar
McClerking, Harwood K., Laird, Chryl N., and Block, Ray Jr. 2018. “The Fragility of Racial Transcendence: An Analysis of Oprah Winfrey's Endorsement of the Barack Obama 2008 Presidential Campaign.” American Politics Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X18757236. Accessed September 10, 2018.Google Scholar
Miller, Joanne M., and Krosnick, Jon A.. 2000. “News Media Impact on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations: Politically Knowledgeable Citizens are Guided by A Trusted Source.” American Journal of Political Science 44 (April): 301–315.Google Scholar
Moffit, Kimberly R. 2010. “Framing a First Lady: Media Coverage of Michelle Obama's Role in the 2008 Presidential Election.” In The Obama Effect: Multidisciplinary Renderings of the 2008 Campaign, eds. Harris, Heather E., Moffitt, Kimberly, and Squires, Catherine R.. Albany: State University of New York Press, 250–265.Google Scholar
Moore, Donna. 2012. “Let's Move in School.” Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators 25 (January): 6–7.Google Scholar
Nelson, Louis. 2016. “Michelle Obama Pitches Clinton: It's Not about Voting for the Perfect Candidate.” Politico.com, September 28. http://www.politico.com/story/2016/09/michelle-obama-clinton-campaigning-228844. Accessed January 11, 2017.Google Scholar
Nelson, Sophia. 2012. Black Woman Redefined: Dispelling Myths and Discovering Fulfillment in the Age of Michelle Obama. Dallas, TX: BenBella Books.Google Scholar
Norton, Michael I., and Sommers, Samuel R.. 2011. “Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 6 (May): 215–218.Google Scholar
Obama, Michelle. 2018. Becoming. New York, NY: Crown.Google Scholar
Oliver, J. Eric, and Mendelberg, Tali. 2000. “Reconsidering the Environmental Determinants of White Racial Attitudes.” American Journal of Political Science 3 (July): 574–589.Google Scholar
Ong, Anthony D., Burrow, Anthony L., and Cerrada, Christian. 2016. “Seeing the Other in the Self: The Impact of Barack Obama and Cultural Socialization on Perceptions of Self-Other Overlap among African Americans.” Social Cognition 34 (6): 589–603.Google Scholar
Oppenheim, Maya. 2017. “Michelle Obama Opens Up about Racism and the ‘Shards’ that ‘Cut’ Her ‘Deepest’ as First Lady.” Independent.co.uk, July 27. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/michelle-obama-racism-first-lady-white-house-shards-cut-deepest-barack-denver-a7863021.html. Accessed May 27, 2018.Google Scholar
Page, Benjamin, and Shapiro, Robert Y.. 1992. The Rational Public: Fifty Years of Trends in Americans’ Policy Preferences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Palfrey, Judith S. 2010. “Every Pediatrician Has Role in Let's Move! Campaign.” American Academy of Pediatrics News 31(August): 6.Google Scholar
Parker, Christopher Sebastian. 2016. “Race and Politics in the Age of Obama.” Annual Review of Sociology 42 (July): 217–230.Google Scholar
Parker, Christopher S., and Barreto, Matt A.. 2014. Change They Can't Believe In: The Tea Party and Reactionary Politics in America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Patterson, James T. 2013. Freedom Is Not Enough: The Moynihan Report and America's Struggle over Black Family Life--from LBJ to Obama. New York: Basic Books, 2013.Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. 2010. “A Year After Obama's Election: Blacks Upbeat about Black Progress, Prospects.” January 12. http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/10/blacks-upbeat-about-black-progress-prospects.pdf. Accessed April 14, 2018.Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. 2016. “Obama Leaves Office on High Note, But Public Has Mixed Views of Accomplishments.” December 14. http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2016/12/14133019/12-14-16-Obama-legacy-release.pdf. Accessed April 12, 2018.Google Scholar
Philpot, Tasha S. 2018. “Race, Gender, and the 2016 Presidential Election.” Political Science & Politics 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096518000896. Accessed September 10, 2018.Google Scholar
Philpot, Tasha S., and Walton, Hanes. 2007. “One of Our Own: Black Female Candidates and the Voters who Support Them.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (1): 49–62.Google Scholar
Plant, E. Ashby, Devine, Patricia G., Cox, William T. L., Columb, Corey, Miller, Saul L., Goplen, Joanna, and Peruche, B. Michelle. 2009. “The Obama Effect: Decreasing Implicit Prejudice and Stereotyping.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45 (July): 961–964.Google Scholar
Purdie-Vaughns, Valerie, Sumner, Rachel, and Cohen, Geoffrey. “Sasha and Malia: Re-Envisioning African American Youth.” In The Obamas and A (Post) Racial America?, eds. Parks, Gregory S. and Hugely, Matthew W.. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Preacher, Kristopher J., Rucker, Derek D., and Hayes, Andrew F.. 2007. “Addressing Moderated Mediation Hypotheses: Theory, Methods, and Prescriptions.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 42 (June): 185–227.Google Scholar
Read, Barbara. 2016. “Britney, Beyoncé, and Me–Primary School Girls’ Role Models and Constructions of the ‘Popular’ Girl.” Gender and Education 23 (January): 1–13.Google Scholar
Rubin, Deena. 2016. “Deena Rubin: Michelle Obama Inspiring Role Model.” Daily Hampshire Gazette, November 21. www.gazettenet.com/Diane-Rubin-on-the-goodness-of-rolemodel-Michelle-Obama-6236258. Accessed May 27, 2018.Google Scholar
Sackett, Paul R., DuBois, Cathy L., and Noe, Ann W.. 1991. “Tokenism in Performance Evaluation: The Effects of Work Group Representation on Male-Female and White-Black Differences in Performance Ratings” Journal of Applied Psychology 76 (April): 263–267.Google Scholar
Schmidt, Kathleen, and Nosek, Brian A.. 2010. “Implicit (and Explicit) Racial Attitudes Barely Changed during Barack Obama's Presidential Campaign and Early Presidency.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46 (March): 308–314.Google Scholar
Schuman, Howard, and Converse, Jean M.. 1971. “The Effects of Black and White Interviewers on Black Responses in 1968.” Public Opinion Quarterly 35 (1): 44–68.Google Scholar
Shepphard, Kate, and Barron-Lopez, Laura. 2016. “Michelle Obama: Who Do You Want As Your Children's Role Model?” Huffington Post, July 25. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/michelle-obama-dnc-speech_us_5796c902e4b02d5d5ed2ac9b. Accessed April 19, 2017.Google Scholar
Shoop, Tiffany J. 2010. “From Professionals to Potential First Ladies: How Newspapers Told the Stories of Cindy McCain and Michelle Obama.” Sex Roles 63 (11–12): 807–819.Google Scholar
Simien, Evelyn M. 2015. Historic Firsts: How Symbolic Empowerment Changes U.S. Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sims, Sandra, and Dowd, Karen J.. 2013. “Advocacy in Action: Tips and Techniques: Move is the Word: Connecting Let's Move in School to National Physical Fitness and Sport Month.” Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators 24 (January): 35–37.Google Scholar
Smelser, Neil J., Wilson, William Julius, and Mitchell, Faith, eds. 2001. America Becoming: Racial Trends and Their Consequences. Washington DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Speizer, Jeanne J. 1981. “Role Models, Mentors, and Sponsors: The Elusive Concepts.” Signs 6 (July): 692–712.Google Scholar
Spillers, Hortense. 2009. Views of the East Wing: On Michelle Obama.” Communication & Critical/Cultural Studies 6 (August): 301–310.Google Scholar
Stoll, Laurie C., and Block, Ray Jr. 2015. “Intersectionality and Cyberbullying: A Study of Cybervictimization in a Midwestern High School.” Computers in Human Behavior 52 (November): 387–397.Google Scholar
Squires, Catherine R., and Jackson, Sarah J.. 2010. “Reducing Race: News Themes in the 2008 Primaries.” International Journal of Press/Politics 15 (July): 375–400.Google Scholar
Sun, Feifie. 2012. “Michelle Obama's Fashion: On Message.” Time Magazine, September 5. http://swampland.time.com/2012/09/05/michelle-obamas-fashion-on-message/. Accessed May 27, 2018.Google Scholar
Tate, Katherine. “Black opinion on the legitimacy of racial redistricting and minority-majority districts.” American Political Science Review 97, no. 1 (2003): 45–56.Google Scholar
Taylor, Marylee C., and Mateyka, Peter J.. 2011. “Community Influences on White Racial Attitudes: What Matters and Why?” Sociological Quarterly 52 (April): 220–243.Google Scholar
Taylor, Marylee C., and Reyes, Adriana M.. 2014. “The Impact of Local Black Residents’ Socioeconomic Status on White Residents’ Racial Views.” Social Science Research 43: 16–29.Google Scholar
Thompson, Krissah. 2012. “Survey Paints Portrait of Black Women in America.” Washington Post, January 22. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/survey-paints-portrait-of-black-women-in-america/2011/12/22/gIQAvxFcJQ_story.html?utm_term=.94781ddb2994. Accessed June 2, 2018.Google Scholar
Thornton, Michael C. 2010. “‘He Loves Strong, Intelligent Women. They're His Kryptonite.’ Michelle Obama, Gender, Race, and the Black Press.” In Race in the Age of Obama (Research in Race and Ethnic Relations, Volume 16), eds. Cunnigen, Donald and Bruce, Marino A.. West Yorkshire, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 29–53.Google Scholar
Tien, Charles, Nadeau, Richard, and Lewis-Beck, Michael S.. “Obama and 2012: still a racial cost to pay?.” PS: Political Science & Politics 45, no. 4 (2012): 591–595.Google Scholar
Tomz, Michael, Wittenberg, Jason, and King, Gary. 2001. CLARIFY: Software for Interpreting and Presenting Statistical Results, v. 2.0. Available at http://gking.harvard.edu.Google Scholar
Tuttrup, Breana. 2016. “Michelle Obama: An Iconic Role Model for Women.” HerCampus.com, November 27. https://www.hercampus.com/school/gustavus/michelle-obama-iconic-rolemodel-women. Accessed May 27, 2018.Google Scholar
Valentino, Nicholas A., and Brader, Ted. 2011. “The Sword's Other Edge: Perceptions of Discrimination and Racial Policy Opinion after Obama.” Public Opinion Quarterly 75 (June): 201–226.Google Scholar
Valeri, Linda, and VanderWeedle, Tyler J.. 2013. “Mediation Analysis Allowing for Exposure-Mediator Interactions and Causal Interpretation: Theoretical Assumptions and Implementation with SAS and SPSS Macros. Psychological Methods 18 (June): 137–150.Google Scholar
Walsh, Eileen T. “Representations of race and gender in mainstream media coverage of the 2008 Democratic primary.” Journal of African American Studies 13, no. 2 (2009): 121–130.Google Scholar
Walsh, Kenneth T. 2017. “The Missing Role Models: Public Officials Used to be Worthy of being Looked Up To—Not Anymore.” U.S. News and World Report, December 1. https://www.usnews.com/news/the-report/articles/2017-12-01/there-are-no-rolemodels-left-in-politics. Accessed July 12, 2018.Google Scholar
Wanzo, Rebecca. 2011. “Black Love Is Not A Fairy Tale: African American Women, Romance, and Rhetoric.” Poroi 7 (September): 1–18.Google Scholar
Washington Post. 2012. “Has Michelle Obama Changed the Image of Black Women in America?” January 24. https://live.washingtonpost.com/black-women-michelle-obama-120124.html. Accessed June 8, 2018.Google Scholar
Weingart, Tyler. 2012. “Reporting Childhood Obesity: An Analysis of How the Let's Move Campaign Has Impacted Today's Media Landscape and a National Debate.” Masters thesis, American University.Google Scholar
Welch, Susan, and Sigelman, Lee. 2011. “The ‘Obama Effect’ and White Racial Attitudes.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 634 (March): 207–220.Google Scholar
White, Ismail, Laird, Chryl N., Wamble, Julian, and McConnaughy, Corrine. 2018. “Unpacking the Maintenance of Black Democratic Party Loyalty.” Working paper.Google Scholar
Williams, Mariam. 2013. “Michelle Obama Is A Role Model, Though Not A Feminist One.” National Catholic Reporter, November 18. http://ncronline.org/blogs/intersection/michelle-obama-rolemodel-though-maybe-not-feminist-one. Accessed August 11, 2013.Google Scholar
Williams, Javonda, Bolland, Kathleen A., Hooper, Lisa, Church, Wesley, Tomek, Sara, and Bolland, John. 2014. “Say It Loud: The Obama Effect and Racial/Ethnic Identification of Adolescents.” Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment 24 (September): 858–868.Google Scholar
Wojcicki, Janet M., and Heyman, Melvin B.. 2010. “Let's Move—Childhood Obesity Prevention from Pregnancy and Infancy Onward.” New England Journal of Medicine 362 (April): 1457–1459.Google Scholar
Wolbrecht, Christina, and Campbell, David E.. 2007. “Leading by Example: Female Members of Parliament as Political Role Models.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (October): 921–939.Google Scholar
Wolfe, Richard. “Barack's Rock: She's the One Who Keeps Him Real, the One Who Makes Sure Running for Leader of the Free World Doesn't Go to His Head. Michelle's Story.” Newsweek, August 28 (2007): 12–18.Google Scholar