Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-l4dxg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-07T09:10:42.589Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Legislative Power and Women's Representation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 December 2014

Leslie Schwindt-Bayer  and
Peverill Squire
Leslie Schwindt-Bayer
Affiliation:
Rice University
Peverill Squire
Affiliation:
University of Missouri
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Women's representation in national legislatures varies widely around the world. In 2012, only Rwanda and Andorra had achieved parity in women's representation in the national parliament, with 56% of the Rwandan Chamber of Deputies being female and exactly half the Andorran General Council represented by each sex. In many other countries, women still have little representation in the national legislature, despite being almost 50% of the population. A large body of research has emerged to try to explain the wide variation across countries, with most of it focusing on cultural, socioeconomic, and electoral explanations (e.g., McDonagh 2002; Norris 1985; Reynolds 1999; Rule 1987; Tripp and Kang 2008). Recent scholarship, however, has suggested that the legislature itself is a gendered institution that marginalizes women and argues for greater attention to understanding exactly how legislative institutions affect women's representation (Beckwith 2005; Chappell 2006; 2010; Duerst-Lahti and Kelly 1995; Hawkesworth 2003; 2005; Krook and Mackay 2011; Schwindt-Bayer 2010).

Type
Research Article
Information
Politics & Gender , Volume 10 , Issue 4 , December 2014 , pp. 622 - 658
Copyright
Copyright © The Women and Politics Research Section of the American Political Science Association 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abbe, Owen G., and Herrnson, Paul S.. 2003. “Campaign Professionalism in State Legislative Elections.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 3 (3): 223–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersen, Kristi, and Thorson, Stuart J.. 1984. “Congressional Turnover and the Election of Women.” Western Political Quarterly 37 (1): 143–56.Google Scholar
Arceneaux, Kevin. 2001. “The ‘Gender Gap’ in State Legislative Representation: New Data to Tackle an Old Question.” Political Research Quarterly 54:143–60.Google Scholar
Barnes, Tiffany D. 2012. “Gender Quotas and the Representation of Women: Empowerment, Decision-making, and Public Policy.” Ph.D. diss., Rice University.Google Scholar
Beckwith, Karen. 2005. “A Common Language of Gender?” Politics & Gender 1 (1):128–37.Google Scholar
Berkman, Michael B. 1994. “State Legislators in Congress: Strategic Politicians, Professional Legislatures, and the Party Nexus.” American Journal of Political Science 38 (4):1025–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, William D., Berkman, Michael B., and Schneiderman, Stuart. 2000. “Legislative Professionalism and Incumbent Reelection: The Development of Institutional Boundaries.” American Political Science Review 94 (3): 859–74.Google Scholar
Burns, Nancy, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Verba, Sidney. 2001. The Private Roots of Public Action: Gender, Equality, and Political Participation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Burrell, Barbara. 1994. A Woman's Place is in the House: Campaigning for Congress in the Feminist Era. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Cain, Bruce E., Ferejohn, John A., and Fiorina, Morris P.. 1987. The Personal Vote. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Camp, Roderic Ai. 1995. Political Recruitment across Two Centuries: Mexico, 1884–1991. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Carey, John M. 1996. Term Limits and Legislative Representation. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Carey, John M., Niemi, Richard G., and Powell, Lynda W.. 2000. “Incumbency and the Probability of Reelection in State Legislative Elections.” Journal of Politics 62 (3):671–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, John M., and Shugart, Matthew Soberg. 1995. “Incentives to Cultivate a Personal Vote.” Electoral Studies 14 (4): 417–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, John M., and Shugart, Matthew Soberg, eds. 1998. Executive Decree Authority. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, Susan J. 1994. Women as Candidates in American Politics. 2nd ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Carroll, Susan J., and Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2013. More Women Can Run: Gender and Pathways to the State Legislatures. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caul, Miki. 1999. “Women's Representation in Parliament: The Role of Political Parties.” Party Politics 5 (1): 79–98.Google Scholar
Chappell, Louise. 2006. “Comparing Political Institutions: Revealing the Gendered ‘Logic of Appropriateness.’” Politics & Gender 2 (2): 221–63.Google Scholar
Chappell, Louise. 2010. “Comparative Gender and Institutions: Directions for Research.” Perspectives on Politics 8 (1): 183–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, Gary W. 1987. The Efficient Secret. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crespin, Michael H., and Deitz, Janna L.. 2010. “If You Can’t Join ’Em, Beat ’Em: The Gender Gap in Individual Donations to Congressional Candidates.” Political Research Quarterly 63 (3): 581–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahlerup, Drude, ed. 2006. Women, Politics, and Quotas. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Dahlerup, Drude, and Freidenvall, Lenita. 2005. “Quotas as a ‘Fast Track’ to Equal Representation for Women.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 7 (1): 26–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darcy, Robert, and Choike, James R.. 1986. “A Formal Analysis of Legislative Turnover: Women Candidates and Legislative Representation.” American Journal of Political Science 30 (1): 237–55.Google Scholar
Darcy, Robert, and Schramm, Sarah Slavin. 1977. “When Women Run Against Men.” Public Opinion Quarterly 41 (1): 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darcy, Robert, Welch, Susan, and Clark, Janet. 1994. Women, Elections, and Representation. 2nd ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Desposato, Scott. 2001. “Legislative Politics in Authoritarian Brazil.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 26 (2): 287–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Desposato, Scott. 2012. “Review of The Handbook of National Legislatures.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 37 (3): 389–96.Google Scholar
Diamond, Irene. 1977. Sex Roles in the State House. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dolan, Kathleen. 2004. “The Impact of Candidate Sex on Evaluations of Candidates for the U.S. House of Representatives.” Social Science Quarterly 85 (1): 206–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duerst-Lahti, Georgia, and Kelly, Rita Mae, eds. 1995. Gender Power, Leadership, and Governance. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duverger, Maurice. 1955. The Political Role of Women. Paris: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Engstrom, Richard L. 1987. “District Magnitude and the Election of Women to the Irish Dail.” Electoral Studies 6 (2): 123–32.Google Scholar
Fish, M. Steven, and Kroenig, Matthew. 2009. The Handbook of National Legislatures. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fish, M. Steven, and Kroenig, Matthew. 2012. “A Response to Desposato.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 37 (3): 397–401.Google Scholar
Fox, Richard L., and Lawless, Jennifer L.. 2004. “Entering the Arena? Gender and the Decision to Run for Office.” American Journal of Political Science 48 (2): 264–80.Google Scholar
Fox, Richard L., and Lawless, Jennifer L.. 2010. “If Only They'd Ask: Gender, Recruitment, and Political Ambition.” Journal of Politics 72 (2): 310–26.Google Scholar
Fox, Richard L., and Lawless, Jennifer L.. 2011. “Gendered Perceptions and Political Candidacies: A Central Barrier to Women's Equality in Electoral Politics.” American Journal of Political Science 55 (1): 59–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frye, Timothy. 1997. “A Politics of Institutional Choice: Post-Communist Presidencies.” Comparative Political Studies 30 (5): 523–52.Google Scholar
Fulton, Sarah A. 2012. “Running Backwards and in High Heels: The Gendered Quality Gap and Incumbent Electoral Success.” Political Research Quarterly 65 (2): 303–14.Google Scholar
Fulton, Sarah A., Maestas, Cherie D., Maisel, L. Sandy, and Stone, Walter J.. 2006. “The Sense of a Woman: Gender, Ambition, and the Decision to Run for Congress.” Political Research Quarterly 59 (2): 235–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkesworth, Mary. 2003. “Congressional Enactments of Race-Gender: Toward a Theory of Raced-Gendered Institutions.” American Political Science Review 97 (4): 1214–29.Google Scholar
Hawkesworth, Mary. 2005. “Engendering Political Science: An Immodest Proposal.” Politics & Gender 1 (1): 141–56.Google Scholar
Heath, Roseanna M., Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A., and Taylor-Robinson, Michelle M.. 2005. “Women on the Sidelines: Women's Representation on Committees in Latin American Legislatures.” American Journal of Political Science 49 (2): 420–36.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala N., and Jones, Mark P.. 2002. “Engendering the Right to Participate in Decision-Making: Electoral Quotas and Women's Leadership in Latin America.” In Gender and the Politics of Rights and Democracy in Latin America, ed. Craske, Nikki and Molyneux, Maxine. New York: Palgrave Publishers.Google Scholar
Hughes, Melanie M. 2011. “Intersectionality, Quotas, and Minority Women's Political Representation Worldwide.” American Political Science Review 105 (3): 604–20.Google Scholar
Inglehart, Ronald, and Norris, Pippa. 2003. Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change around the World. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jenkins, Shannon. 2007. “A Woman's Work is Never Done? Fund-Raising Perception and Effort among Female State Legislative Candidates.” Political Research Quarterly 60 (2): 230–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Mark P. 2009. “Gender Quotas, Electoral Laws, and the Election of Women: Evidence from the Latin American Vanguard.” Comparative Political Studies 42 (1): 56–81.Google Scholar
Jones, Mark P., Saiegh, Sebastian, Spiller, Pablo T., and Tommasi, Mariano. 2002. “Amateur Legislators—Professional Politicians: The Consequences of Party-Centered Electoral Rules in a Federal System.” American Journal of Political Science 46 (3): 656–69.Google Scholar
Kelly, Rita Mae, and Duerst-Lahti, Georgia. 1995. “The Study of Gender Power and its Link to Governance and Leadership.” In Gender Power, Leadership, and Governance, ed. Duerst-Lahti, Georgia and Mae Kelly, Rita. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Kenworthy, Lane, and Malami, Melissa. 1999. “Gender Inequality in Political Representation: A Worldwide Comparative Analysis.” Social Forces 78 (1): 235–69.Google Scholar
Kittilson, Miki Caul. 2006. Challenging Parties, Changing Parliaments. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.Google Scholar
Kittilson, Miki Caul, and Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A.. 2012. The Gendered Effects of Electoral Institutions: Political Engagement and Participation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena. 2009. Quotas for Women in Politics: Gender and Candidate Selection Reform Worldwide. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena, and Mackay, Fiona, eds. 2011. Gender, Politics, and Institutions. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kunovich, Sheri, and Paxton, Pamela. 2005. “Pathways to Power: The Role of Political Parties in Women's National Political Representation.” American Journal of Sociology 111 (2): 505–52.Google Scholar
Laver, Michael, and Shepsle, Kenneth. 1990. “Coalitions and Cabinet Government.” American Political Science Review 84 (3): 873–90.Google Scholar
Lawless, Jennifer L., and Fox, Richard L.. 2005. It Takes a Candidate: Why Women Don't Run for Office. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lawless, Jennifer L., and Fox, Richard L.. 2010. It Still Takes a Candidate. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lax, Jeffrey R., and Phillips, Justin H.. 2009. “Gay Rights in the States: Public Opinion and Public Responsiveness.” American Political Science Review 103 (1): 367–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackay, Fiona, Kenny, Meryl, and Chappell, Louise. 2010. “New Institutionalism Through a Gender Lens: Towards a Feminist Institutionalism?” International Political Science Review 31 (5): 573–88.Google Scholar
Maestas, Cherie. 2003. “The Incentive to Listen: Progressive Ambition, Resources, and Opinion Monitoring among State Legislators.” Journal of Politics 65 (2): 439–56.Google Scholar
Malesky, Edmund, and Schuler, Paul. 2011. “The Single-Party Dictator's Dilemma: Information in Elections without Opposition.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 36 (4): 491–530.Google Scholar
Martin, Lanny, and Stevenson, Randolph. 2001. “Government Formation in Parliamentary Democracies.” American Journal of Political Science 45 (1): 33–50.Google Scholar
Matland, Richard E. 1994. “Putting Scandinavian Equality to the Test: An Experimental Evaluation of Gender Stereotyping of Political Candidates in a Sample of Norwegian Voters.” British Journal of Political Science 24 (2): 273–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matland, Richard E. 1998. “Women's Representation in National Legislatures: Developed and Developing Countries.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 23 (1): 109–25.Google Scholar
Matland, Richard E., and Studlar, Donley T.. 1996. “The Contagion of Women Candidates in SMD and PR Electoral Systems: Canada and Norway.” Journal of Politics 58 (3):707–33.Google Scholar
Mayhew, David R. 1974. Congress: The Electoral Connection. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
McDonagh, Eileen. 2002. “Political Citizenship and Democratization: The Gender Paradox.” American Political Science Review 96 (3): 535–52.Google Scholar
Metcalf, Lee Kendall. 2000. “Measuring Presidential Power.” Comparative Political Studies 33 (5): 660–86.Google Scholar
Moncrief, Gary, Niemi, Richard G., and Powell, Lynda W.. 2004. “Time, Term Limits, and Turnover: Membership Stability in U.S. State Legislatures.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 29 (2): 357–81.Google Scholar
Moncrief, Gary F., Squire, Peverill, and Jewell, Malcolm E.. 2001. Who Runs for the Legislature? Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Morgenstern, Scott, and Nacif, Benito, eds. 2002. Legislative Politics in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nechemias, Carol. 1987. “Changes in the Election of Women to U.S. State Legislative Seats.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 12 (1): 125–42.Google Scholar
Nelson, Barbara, and Chowdhury, Najma, eds. 1994. Women and Politics Worldwide. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Niven, David. 1998. “Party Elites and Women Candidates: The Shape of Bias.” Women & Politics 19 (2): 57–80.Google Scholar
Norrander, Barbara, and Wilcox, Clyde. 2005. “Change and Continuity in the Geography of Women State Legislators.” In Women and Elective Office: Past, Present, and Future, ed. Thomas, S. and Wilcox, C.. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Norris, Pippa. 1985. “Women's Legislative Participation in Western Europe. West European Politics 8 (4): 90–101.Google Scholar
Norris, Pippa, Vallance, Elizabeth, and Lovenduski, Joni. 1992. “Do Candidates Make a Difference? Gender, Race, Ideology, and Incumbency.” Parliamentary Affairs 45 (4): 496–517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oakes, Ann, and Almquist, Elizabeth. 1993. “Women in National Legislatures: A Cross-National Test of Macrostructural Gender Theories.” Population Research and Policy Review 12 (1): 71–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paxton, Pamela, and Hughes, Melanie M.. 2007. Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective. Los Angeles: Pine Forge Press.Google Scholar
Paxton, Pamela, Hughes, Melanie M., and Painter, Matthew A.. 2010. “Growth in Women's Political Representation: A Longitudinal Exploration of Democracy, Electoral System and Gender Quotas. European Journal of Political Research 49 (1): 25–52.Google Scholar
Pitkin, Hanna. 1967. The Concept of Representation. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Randall, Vicky, and Smyth, Ailbhe. 1987. “Bishops and Bailiwicks: Obstacles to Women's Political Participation in Ireland.” Economic and Social Review 18 (3): 189–214.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Andrew. 1999. “Women in the Legislatures and Executives of the World: Knocking at the Highest Glass Ceiling. World Politics 51 (4): 547–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodríguez, Victoria E. 2003. Women in Contemporary Mexican Politics. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Rosen, Jennifer. 2013. “The Effects of Political Institutions on Women's Political Representation: A Comparative Analysis of 168 Countries from 1992 to 2010.” Political Research Quarterly 66 (2): 306–21.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Alan. 1989. “The Legislative Institution: Transformed and at Risk.” In The State of the States, ed. Horn, Carl E. Van. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Rule, Wilma. 1981. “Why Women Don't Run: The Critical Contextual Factors in Women's Legislative Recruitment.” Western Political Quarterly 34 (1): 60–77.Google Scholar
Rule, Wilma. 1987. “Electoral Systems, Contextual Factors and Women's Opportunity for Election to Parliament in Twenty-Three Democracies.” Western Political Quarterly 40 (3): 477–98.Google Scholar
Rule, Wilma. 1994. “Parliaments of, by, and for the People: Except for Women?” In Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, ed. Zimmerman, Joseph F. and Rule, Wilma. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Rule, Wilma, and Zimmerman, Joseph F., eds. 1994. Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Samuels, David. 2003. Ambition, Federalism, and Legislative Politics in Brazil. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2002a. “Gender Stereotypes and Vote Choice.” American Journal of Political Science 46 (1): 20.Google Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2002b. “Political Parties and the Recruitment of Women to State Legislatures.” Journal of Politics 64 (3): 791–809.Google Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2003. “Gender-Related Political Knowledge and the Descriptive Representation of Women.” Political Behavior 25 (4): 367–88.Google Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2006. Where Women Run: Gender and Party in the American States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Schmidt, Gregory D. 2008. “The Election of Women in List PR Systems: Testing the Conventional Wisdom.” Electoral Studies 28 (2): 190–203.Google Scholar
Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A. 2005. “The Incumbency Disadvantage and Women's Election to Legislative Office.” Electoral Studies 24 (2): 227–44.Google Scholar
Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A. 2010. Political Power and Women's Representation in Latin America. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A. 2009. “Making Quotas Work: The Effect of Gender Quota Laws on the Election of Women.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 34 (1): 5–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie A., Malecki, Michael, and Crisp, Brian F. 2010. “Candidate Gender and Electoral Success in Single Transferable Vote Systems.” British Journal of Political Science 40 (3): 693–709.Google Scholar
Seltzer, Richard A., Newman, Jody, and Leighton, Melissa Voorhees. 1997. Sex as a Political Variable: Women as Candidates and Voters in U.S. Elections. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Shipan, Charles R., and Volden, Craig. 2006. “Bottom-Up Federalism: The Diffusion of Antismoking Policies from U.S. Cities to State.” American Journal of Political Science 50 (3): 825–43.Google Scholar
Shugart, Matthew Soberg, and Carey, John M.. 1992. Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Siaroff, Alan. 2003. “Comparative Presidencies: The Inadequacy of the Presidential, Semi-presidential and Parliamentary Distinction.” European Journal of Political Research 42 (3): 287–312.Google Scholar
Smith, Adrienne R., Reingold, Beth, and Owens, Michael Leo. 2011. The Political Determinants of Women's Descriptive Representation in Cities. Political Research Quarterly 65 (2): 315–29.Google Scholar
Smith, Eric R.A.N., and Fox, Richard L.. 2001. “The Electoral Fortunes of Women Candidates for Congress.” Political Research Quarterly 54 (1): 205–21.Google Scholar
Squire, Peverill. 1992. “Legislative Professionalization and Membership Diversity in State Legislatures.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 27 (1): 69–79.Google Scholar
Squire, Peverill. 1993. “Professionalism and Public Opinion of State Legislatures.” Journal of Politics 55 (2): 479–91.Google Scholar
Squire, Peverill. 2007. “Measuring State Legislative Professionalism: The Squire Index Revisited.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 7 (2): 211–27.Google Scholar
Squire, Peverill. 2014. “Electoral Career Movements and the Flow of Political Power in the American Federal System.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 14 (1): 72–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Squire, Peverill, and Moncrief, Gary. 2010. State Legislatures Today: Politics Under the Domes. Boston, MA: Longman.Google Scholar
Strom, Kaare, Budge, Ian, and Laver, Michael J.. 1994. “Constraints on Cabinet Formation in Parliamentary Democracies.” American Journal of Political Science 38 (2): 303–35.Google Scholar
Studlar, Donley T., and McAllister, Ian. 1991. “Political Recruitment to the Australian Legislature: Toward an Explanation of Women's Electoral Disadvantages.” Western Political Quarterly 44 (2): 467–85.Google Scholar
Studlar, Donley T., and Welch, Susan. 1991. “Does District Magnitude Matter? Women Candidates in London Local Elections.” Western Political Quarterly 44 (2): 457–67.Google Scholar
Tremblay, Manon. 2007. “Democracy, Representation, and Women: A Comparative Analysis.” Democratization 14 (4): 533–53.Google Scholar
Tremblay, Manon, ed. 2008. Women and Legislative Representation: Electoral Systems, Political Parties, and Sex Quotas. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tripp, Aili, and Kang, Alice. 2008. “The Global Impact of Quotas: On the Fast Track to Increased Female Legislative Representation.” Comparative Political Studies 41 (3): 338–61.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Burns, Nancy, and Schlozman, Kay Lehman. 1997. “Knowing and Caring about Politics: Gender and Political Engagement.” Journal of Politics 59 (4): 1059–72.Google Scholar
Volden, Craig, Wiseman, Alan E., and Wittmer, Dana E.. 2013. “When Are Women More Effective Lawmakers Than Men?” American Journal of Political Science 57 (2): 326–341.Google Scholar
Welch, Susan, and Studlar, Donley T.. 1990. “Multimember Districts and the Representation of Women.” Journal of Politics 52 (2): 391–412.Google Scholar
Welch, Susan, and Studlar, Donley T.. 1996. “The Opportunity Structure for Women's Candidacies and Electability in Britain and the United States.” Political Research Quarterly 49 (4): 861–75.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2007. World Development Indicators [CD-ROM]. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.Google Scholar
Wright, Gerald. 2007. “Do Term Limits Affect Legislative Roll Call Voting? Representation, Polarization, and Participation.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 7 (2): 256–80.Google Scholar
Yoon, Mi Yung. 2004. “Explaining Women's Legislative Representation in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 29 (3): 447–68.Google Scholar
Young, Lisa. 1991. “Legislative Turnover and the Election of Women to the Canadian House of Commons.” In Women in Canadian Politics: Toward Equity in Representation, ed. Megyery, K.. Toronto: Dundurn Press.Google Scholar