Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T04:24:05.253Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

(In)Compatible Visions of Justice? Personal Culpability and Gender Justice at the ICC

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 August 2020

Liana Georgieva Minkova*
Affiliation:
University of Cambridge

Abstract

Although the International Criminal Court (ICC) has been heralded as a success story for gender justice, in practice prosecutions of sexual and gender-based crimes (SGBC) have often ended with acquittal at the court. Gender studies in international relations explain the lack of successful SGBC prosecutions by looking to the influence of older gender biases in international law, which preclude the successful implementation of the novel Rome Statute provisions criminalizing SGBC. This article suggests that “forgetting” the gender justice norm insufficiently explains the outcome of the ICC's SGBC prosecutions. The article argues that ICC judges “remembered” another norm of criminal justice, long forgotten in international trials – strict compliance with the personal culpability principle – which has resulted in tension between different visions of justice in the court's practice: delivering substantive justice for SGBC victims v. safeguarding the defendant's rights by upholding criminal law principles.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I would like to thank Dr. Adam Branch for his thoughtful comments on this article.

References

LEGAL SOURCES

Prosecutor v. Al-Hassan CaseNo. ICC-PIDS-CIS-MAL-02-006/19_Eng, (2019), https://www.icc-cpi.int/CaseInformationSheets/al-hassanEng.pdf.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Bemba, CaseNo.ICC-01/05-01/08-3636-Red, Judgment on Appeal (June 8, 2018), https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2018_02984.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Bemba, CaseNo.ICC-01/05-01/08-3636-Anx2, Separate Opinion (June 8, 2018), https://www.icc-cpi.int/RelatedRecords/CR2018_02989.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Gbagbo, CaseNo.ICC-02/11-01/11-432, Decision Adjourning the Hearing (June 3, 2013), https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2015_04878.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Gbagbo, CaseNo.ICC-02/11-01/11-T-17-Red-ENG, (February 22, 2013), https://www.icc-cpi.int/Transcripts/CR2013_02637.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Gbagbo and Blé Goudé, CaseNo.ICC-02/11-01/15-1263-AnxB-Red, Reasons of Judge Geoffrey Henderson (July 16, 2019), https://editions-alexandrie.com/uploads/Documents/ANNEXE%20B.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Gbagbo and Blé Goudé, CaseNo.ICC-02/11-01/15-1263-AnxC-Red, Dissenting Opinion Judge Herrera Carbuccia (July 16, 2019), https://www.icc-cpi.int/RelatedRecords/CR2019_03856.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Katanga and Ngudjolo, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-01/07-717, Confirmation of Charges (September 30, 2008) https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2008_05172.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Katanga, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-01/07-3436-tENG, Judgment (March 7, 2014), https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2015_04025.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Katanga, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-01/07-3436-AnxI, Minority Opinion (March 7, 2014), https://www.icc-cpi.int/RelatedRecords/CR2014_02619.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Lubanga, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-02/06-20-Anx2, Decision on Warrants of Arrest (February 10, 2006)Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Lubanga, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-01/06-803-tEN, Confirmation of Charges, (January 29, 2007), https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2007_02360.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Lubanga, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-01/06-T-107-ENG (January 26, 2009), https://www.icc-cpi.int/Transcripts/CR2009_00591.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Lubanga, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-01/06-2360, Decision on Judicial Questioning (March 18, 2010), https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2010_02116.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Lubanga, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-01/06-2842, Judgment (March 14, 2012) https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2012_03942.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Lubanga, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-01/06-2901, Sentence (July 10, 2012) https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2012_07409.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Ngudjolo, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-02/12-3-tENG, Judgment (December 18, 2012), https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2013_02993.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Ntaganda, CaseNo.ICC-01/04-02/06-2359, Judgment (July 8, 2019), https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2019_03568.PDF.Google Scholar
Prosecutor v. Ongwen, CaseNo.ICC-02/04-01/15-422-Red, Confirmation of Charges (March 23, 2016), https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2016_02331.PDF.Google Scholar

REFERENCES

Amann, Diane Marie. 2003. “Assessing International Criminal Adjudication of Human Rights Atrocities.” Third World Legal Studies 16 (9): 169–81.Google Scholar
Ambos, Kai. 2002. “Superior Responsibility.” In The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, vol. 1, eds. Cassese, Antonio, Gaeta, Paola, and Jones, John R. W. D.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 823–71.Google Scholar
Ambos, Kai. 2007. “Joint Criminal Enterprise and Command Responsibility.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 5 (1): 159–83.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. 2019. “Cote d'Ivoire: Acquittal of Gbagbo and Blé Goudé a Crushing Disappointment to Victims of Post-election Violence.” January 15. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/01/cote-acquittal-of-gbagbo-a-crushing-disappointment-to-victims/ (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Aroussi, Sahla. 2017. “Women, Peace, and Security and the DRC: Time to Rethink Wartime Sexual Violence as Gender-Based Violence?” Politics & Gender 13 (3): 488515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Askin, Kelly. 2003. “Prosecuting Wartime Rape and Other Gender-Related Crimes under International Law: Extraordinary Advances, Enduring Obstacles.” Berkeley Journal of International Law 21 (2): 288349.Google Scholar
Badar, Mohamed. 2006. “Just Convict Everyone! Joint Perpetration from Tadic to Stakic and Back Again.” International Criminal Law Review 6 (2): 293302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bass, Gary. 2000. Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bedont, Barbara. 1998. “The Like Minded and the Non-Governmental.” Peace Magazine, September/October. http://peacemagazine.org/archive/v14n5p21.htm (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Bedont, Barbara, and Hall-Martinez, Katherine. 1999. “Ending Impunity for Gender Crimes under the International Criminal Court.” Brown Journal of World Affairs 6 (1): 6585.Google Scholar
Cassese, Antonio. 2003. International Criminal Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cassese, Antonio, et al. 2009. “Amicus Curiae Brief of Professor Antonio Cassese and Members of the Journal of International Criminal Justice on Joint Criminal Enterprise Doctrine.” Criminal Law Forum 20 (2–3): 289330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chappell, Louise. 2014. “’New,’ ‘Old,’ and ‘Nested’ Institutions and Gender Justice Outcomes: A View from the International Criminal Court.” Politics & Gender 10 (4): 572–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chappell, Louise. 2016. The Politics of Gender Justice at the International Criminal Court: Legacies and Legitimacy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Chappell, Louise, Durbach, Andrea, and Benito, Elizabeth Odio. 2014. “Judge Odio Benito: A View of Gender Justice from the Bench.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 16 (4): 648–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Roger. 1973. “Medina: An Essay on the Principles of Criminal Liability for Homicide.” Rutgers-Camden Law Journal 5: 5979.Google Scholar
Combs, Nancy. 2010. Fact-Finding without Facts: The Uncertain Evidentiary Foundations of International Criminal Convictions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cryer, Robert. 2009. “Prosecuting the Leaders: Promises, Politics and Practicalities.” Göttingen Journal of International Law 1 (1): 4575.Google Scholar
Damaška, Mirjan. 2008. “What Is the Point of International Criminal Justice.” Chicago-Kent Law Review 83 (1): 329–65.Google Scholar
Danner, Allison, and Martinez, Jenny. 2005. “Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility, and the Development of International Criminal Law.” California Law Review 93 (1): 75169.Google Scholar
Darcy, Shane. 2007. “Imputed Criminal Liability and the Goals of International Justice.” Leiden Journal of International Law 20 (2): 377404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
deGuzman, Margaret. 2011. “Giving Priority to Sex Crime Prosecutions: The Philosophical Foundations of a Feminist Agenda.” International Criminal Law Review 11 (3): 515–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drumbl, Mark. 2007. Atrocity, Punishment and International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engle, Karen. 2005. “Feminism and Its (Dis)contents: Criminalizing Wartime Rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina.” American Journal of International Law 99 (4): 778816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eser, Albin. 1993. “The Need for a General Part.” Nouvelles Études Pénales 11: 4352.Google Scholar
Fletcher, George P. 2011. “New Court, Old Dogmatik.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 9 (1): 179–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fletcher, George P., and Ohlin, Jens David. 2005. “Reclaiming Fundamental Principles of Criminal Law in the Darfur Case.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 3 (3): 539–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freedman, Jim. 2017. A Conviction in Question: The First Trial at the International Criminal Court. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gil, Alicia, and Maculan, Elena. 2015. “Current Trends in the Definition of ‘Perpetrator’ by the International Criminal Court: From the Decision on the Confirmation of Charges in the Lubanga Case to the Katanga Judgment.” Leiden Journal of International Law 28 (2): 349–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goetz, Anne Marie. 2007. “Gender Justice, Citizenship and Entitlements Core Concepts, Central Debates and New Directions for Research.” In Gender Justice, Citizenship and Development, eds. Mukhopadhyay, Maitrayee and Singh, Navsharan. Ottawa: Zubaan, 1557.Google Scholar
Green, Laurie. 2011. “First-Class Crimes, Second-Class Justice: Cumulative Charges for Gender-Based Crimes at the International Criminal Court.” International Criminal Law Review 11 (3): 529–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grewal, Kiran. 2010. “Rape in Conflict, Rape in Peace: Questioning the Revolutionary Potential of International Criminal Justice for Women's Human Rights.” Australian Feminist Law Journal 33 (1): 5779.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guilfoyle, David. 2011. “Responsibility for Collective Atrocities: Fair Labelling and Approaches to Commission in International Criminal Law.” Current Legal Problems 64(1): 255286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guilfoyle, David. 2019. “A Tale of Two Cases: Lessons for the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court? (Part I).” EJIL: Talk! (blog), August 28. https://www.ejiltalk.org/a-tale-of-two-cases-lessons-for-the-prosecutor-of-the-international-criminal-court/ (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Hayes, Niamh. 2010. “Creating a Definition of Rape in International Law: The Contribution of the International Criminal Tribunals.” In Judicial Creativity at the International Criminal Tribunals, eds. Darcy, Shane and Powderly, Joseph. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 129–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, Nicola. 2014. “The Fixation on Wartime Rape: Feminist Critique and International Criminal Law.” Social & Legal Studies 23 (1): 93111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2005. “Seeking Justice: The Prosecution of Sexual Violence in the Congo War.” March. https://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/drc0305/ (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2006. “Joint letter to the Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court.” July 31. https://www.hrw.org/news/2006/07/31/dr-congo-icc-charges-raise-concern (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2019. “ICC: Congo Warlord Guilty of Crimes against Humanity.” July 8. https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/08/icc-congo-warlord-guilty-crimes-against-humanity (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
International Criminal Court (ICC). 2005. “The Investigation in Northern Uganda.” October 14. https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/E996F31C-5AB0-43C7-B518-69A13844FBAD/143734/Uganda_PPpresentation.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
International Criminal Court (ICC). 2006. “Report on Prosecutorial Strategy.” September 14. https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/D673DD8C-D427-4547-BC69-2D363E07274B/143708/ProsecutorialStrategy20060914_English.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
International Criminal Court (ICC). 2012. “Statement ICC Prosecutor on New Applications for Warrants of Arrest DRC Situation.” May 14. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=otpstatement14052012 (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
International Criminal Court (ICC). 2013. “Strategic Plan June 2012–2015.” October 11. https://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/otp/OTP-Strategic-Plan-2013.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
International Criminal Court (ICC). 2014. “Policy Paper on Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes.” June https://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/otp/Policy_Paper_on_Sexual_and_Gender-Based_Crimes-20_June_2014-ENG.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
International Criminal Court (ICC). 2019. “Strategic Plan 2019–2021.” July 17. https://www.icc-cpi.int/itemsDocuments/20190726-strategic-plan-eng.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Jackson, Miles. 2015. Complicity in International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joseph, Joshua. 2008. “Gender and International Law: How the International Criminal Court Can Bring Justice to Victims of Sexual Violence.” Texas Journal of Women and the Law 18 (1): 61101.Google Scholar
Kaul, Hans-Peter. 2012. “Ten Years International Criminal Court.” October 2. https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/FB16B529-3A60-441D-8DBE-5D6A768CA6FF/284995/02102012_Berlin_DGAP_THEICCatTen_Final.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Kortfält, Linnea. 2015. “Sexual Violence and the Relevance of the Doctrine of Superior Responsibility in the Light of the Katanga Judgment at the International Criminal Court.” Nordic Journal of International Law 84 (4): 533–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKinnon, Catherine. 2008. “The ICTR's Legacy on Sexual Violence.” New English Journal of International and Comparative Law 14 (2): 101–10.Google Scholar
Matthews, Heidi. 2019. “Redeeming Rape: Berlin 1945 and the Making of Modern International Criminal Law.” In The New Histories of International Criminal Law: Retrials, eds. Tallgren, Immi and Skouteris, Thomas. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 90109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattioli-Zeltner, Géraldine. 2016. “Dispatches: High-Profile ICC Warning to Commanders on Rape.” Human Rights Watch, March 21. https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/03/21/dispatches-high-profile-icc-warning-commanders-rape (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
May, Larry. 2004. Crimes against Humanity: A Normative Account. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
May, Larry. 2008. Aggression and Crimes against Peace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Merope, Sienna. 2011. “Recharacterizing the Lubanga Case: Regulation 55 and the Consequences for Gender Justice at the ICC.” Criminal Law Forum 22 (3): 311–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffett, Luke. 2015. “Meaningful and Effective? Considering Victims’ Interests through Participation at the International Criminal Court.” Criminal Law Forum 26 (2): 255–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mouthaan, Solange. 2011. “The Prosecution of Gender-Based Crimes at the ICC: Challenges and Opportunities.” International Criminal Law Review 11 (4): 775802.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muddell, Kelli, and Scanlon, Helen. 2009. “Gender and Transitional Justice in Africa: Progress and Prospects.” African Journal on Conflict Resolution 9 (2): 928.Google Scholar
Nesiah, Vasuki, et al. 2006. “Truth Commissions and Gender: Principles, Policies, and Procedures.” International Center for Transitional Justice, July. https://ictj.org/sites/default/files/ICTJ-Global-Commissions-Gender-2006-English_0.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Nollkaemper, André. 2009. “Introduction.” In System Criminality in International Law, eds. Nollkaemper, André and van der Wilt, Harmen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ohlin, Jens David. 2007. “Three Conceptual Problems with the Doctrine of Joint Criminal Enterprise.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 5 (1): 6990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oosterveld, Valerie. 2005. “Definition of ‘Gender’ in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Step Forward or Back for International Criminal Justice?Harvard Human Rights Journal 18: 5584.Google Scholar
Osiel, Mark. 2009. Making Sense of Mass Atrocity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pritchett, Susan. 2008. “Entrenched Hegemony, Efficient Procedure, or Selective Justice? An Inquiry into Charges for Gender-Based Violence at the International Criminal Court.” Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 17 (1): 265305.Google Scholar
REDRESS. 2018. “Efforts to Afford Justice for Sexual Crimes in CAR Must Not Stop with Bemba's Acquittal.” June 8. https://redress.org/news/efforts-to-afford-justice-for-sexual-crimes-in-car-must-not-stop-with-bembas-acquittal/ (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Robinson, Darryl. 2008. “The Identity Crisis of International Criminal Law.” Leiden Journal of International Law 21 (4): 925–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, Darryl. 2013. “A Cosmopolitan Liberal Account of International Criminal Law.” Leiden Journal of International Law 26 (1): 127–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenberg, Sophie. 2017. “The International Criminal Court in Côte d'Ivoire: Impartiality at Stake?” Journal of International Criminal Justice 15 (3): 471–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharratt, Sara, and Benito, Elizabeth Odio. 1999. “Interview with Elizabeth Odio Benito, Justice of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia.” Women & Therapy 22 (1): 3952.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shklar, Judith. 1964. Legalism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, K'Shanni O. 2011. “Prosecutor v. Lubanga: How the International Criminal Court Failed the Women and Girls of the Congo.” Howard Law Journal 54 (2): 467500.Google Scholar
Smith, Stephen. 2008. “Inventing the Laws of Gravity: The ICC's Initial Lubanga Decision and its Regressive Consequences.” International Criminal Law Review 8(1–2): 331–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stahn, Carsten. 2012. “Between ‘Faith’ and ‘Facts’: By What Standards Should We Assess International Criminal Justice?” Leiden Journal of International Law 25 (2): 251–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stahn, Carsten. 2014. “Justice Delivered or Justice Denied? The Legacy of the Katanga Judgment.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 12 (4): 809–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tampa, Vava. 2019. “A Brutal Warlord Has Been Convicted—So Why Doesn't It Feel Like a Triumph?” Guardian, July 8. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/jul/08/warlord-bosco-ntaganda-democratic-republic-of-the-congo-congolese (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Tan, Joe. 2012. “Sexual Violence against Children on the Battlefield as a Crime of Using Child Soldiers: Square Pegs in Round Holes and Missed Opportunities in Lubanga.” Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 15: 117–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Sliedregt, Elies. 2012. Individual Criminal Responsibility in International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wakabi, Wairagala. 2016. “Reactions to Bemba's Conviction.” International Justice Monitor, March 31. https://www.ijmonitor.org/2016/03/reactions-to-bembas-conviction/ (accessed May 9, 2020)Google Scholar
Wessel, Jared. 2006. “Judicial Policy-Making at the International Criminal Court: An Institutional Guide to Analyzing International Adjudication.” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 44 (2): 377452.Google Scholar
Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ). 2010a. “Legal Filings Submitted by the Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice to the International Criminal Court.” February. http://www.iccwomen.org/publications/articles/docs/LegalFilings-web-2-10.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ). 2010b. “2010 Gender Report Card on the International Criminal Court.” November. https://4genderjustice.org/ftp-files/publications/GRC10-WEB-11-10-v4_Final-version-Dec.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ). 2012a. “Legal Eye on the ICC.” March. https://4genderjustice.org/home/publications/eletters/legal-eye-on-the-icc-march-2012/ (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ). 2012b. “2012 Gender Report Card on the International Criminal Court.” November. https://4genderjustice.org/ftp-files/publications/Gender-Report-Card-on-the-ICC-2012.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ). 2013a. “2013 Gender Report Card on the International Criminal Court.” https://4genderjustice.org/ftp-files/publications/Gender-Report-Card-on-the-ICC-2013.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ). 2013b. “Modes of Liability.” Expert Paper, November. http://www.iccwomen.org/documents/Modes-of-Liability.pdf.Google Scholar
Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ). 2014a. “Partial Conviction of Katanga by ICC: Acquittals for Sexual Violence and Use of Child Soldiers.” March 7. http://www.iccwomen.org/images/Katanga-Judgement-Statement-corr.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ). 2014b. “Legal Eye on the ICC.” September. https://4genderjustice.org/home/publications/eletters/legal-eye-on-the-icc-september-2014-special-issue-ntaganda-confirmation-of-charges/ (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ). 2016. “First ICC Trial in the Uganda Situation: The Prosecutor v. Dominic Ongwen.” http://www.4genderjustice.org/pub/First-ICC-Trial-in-Uganda-Situation-Statement.pdf.Google Scholar
Women's Initiatives for Gender Justice (WIGJ). 2018. “2018 Gender Report Card on the International Criminal Court.” December. https://4genderjustice.org/ftp-files/publications/Gender-Report_design-full-WEB.pdf (accessed May 9, 2020).Google Scholar
Yanev, Lachezar. 2015. “A Janus-Faced Concept: Nuremberg's Law on Conspiracy vis-à-vis the Notion of Joint Criminal Enterprise.” Criminal Law Forum 26 (3): 419–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zawati, Hilmi. 2014. Fair Labelling and the Dilemma of Prosecuting Gender-Based Crimes at the International Tribunals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar