Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T17:48:38.703Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Beyond “Market” and “State” Feminism: Gender Knowledge at the Intersections of Marketization and Securitization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 August 2018

Saskia Stachowitsch
Saskia Stachowitsch*
Affiliation:
University of Vienna/Austrian Institute for International Affairs (oiip)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article assesses the implications of the shifting market-state relationship for feminism in the neoliberal era. In a case study of the private military and security industry as an actor that is uniquely positioned at the intersections of security governance and global markets, the analysis combines feminist security studies’ critique of securitized gender discourses and feminist global political economy scholarship on corporate-led equality initiatives. Based on a critical discourse analysis of documents from industry and nongovernmental organizations, such as codes of conduct and policy recommendations, I argue that the discourses on gender put forward in the context of security privatization merge securitized and marketized discourses to the effect that the emancipatory potential of “gender” is further curtailed, raising new challenges for feminist knowledge in powerful organizations. The article thus contributes to the critical gender research on private security, debates on the neoliberalization and securitization of feminism, and the integration of feminist security studies and feminist global political economy.

Keywords

PMSCsfeminist knowledgegender mainstreamingfeminist security studiesfeminist global political economyneoliberalization of feminismprivate securitymarket-state relationship
Type
Research Article
Information
Politics & Gender , Volume 15 , Issue 1 , March 2019 , pp. 151 - 173
Copyright
Copyright © The Women and Politics Research Section of the American Political Science Association 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

The author would like to thank Josefa Stiegler for her assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. This research was funded by the Austrian Science Fund (project number V291-G22).

References

REFERENCES

Abrahamsen, Rita, and Leander, Anna, eds. 2015. Routledge Handbook of Private Security Studies. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Abrahamsen, Rita, and Williams, Michal C.. 2011. Security beyond the State: Private Security in International Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bacchi, Carol, and Eveline, Joan, eds. 2010. Mainstreaming Politics. Gendering Practices and Feminist Theory. Adelaide: University of Adelaide Press.Google Scholar
Barker, Isabelle V. 2009. “(Re)Producing American Soldiers in an Age of Empire.” Politics & Gender 5 (2): 211–35.Google Scholar
Bedford, Kate. 2013. “Economic Governance and the Regulation of Intimacy in Gender and Development: Lessons from the World Bank's Programming.” In Feminist Strategies in International Governance, eds. Çağlar, Gülay, Prügl, Elisabeth, and Zwingel, Susanne. London: Routledge, 233–48.Google Scholar
Benschop, Yvonne, and Verloo, Mieke. 2006. “Sisyphus’ Sisters: Can Gender Mainstreaming Escape the Genderedness of Organizations?” Journal of Gender Studies 15 (1): 19–33.Google Scholar
Bhabha, Homi K. 1994. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
von Braunmühl, Claudia. 2013. “A Feminist Analysis of UN Security Council Resolutions on Women, Peace, and Security.” In Feminist Strategies in International Governance, eds. Çağlar, Gülay, Prügl, Elisabeth, and Zwingel, Susanne. London: Routledge, 163–80.Google Scholar
Bustelo, María, Ferguson, Lucy, and Forest, Maxime, eds. 2016. The Politics of Feminist Knowledge Transfer: Gender Training and Gender Expertise. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Çağlar, Gülay, Prügl, Elisabeth, and Zwingel, Susanne, eds. 2013. Feminist Strategies in International Governance. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Calkin, Sydney. 2016. “Globalizing ‘Girl Power’: Corporate Social Responsibility and Transnational Business Initiatives for Gender Equality.” Globalizations 13 (2): 158–72.Google Scholar
Chisholm, Amanda. 2014a. “Marketing the Gurkha Security Package: Colonial Histories and Neoliberal Economies of Private Security.” Security Dialogue 45 (4): 349–72.Google Scholar
Chisholm, Amanda. 2014b. “The Silenced and Indispensable: Gurkhas in Private Military Security Companies.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 16 (1): 26–47.Google Scholar
Chisholm, Amanda, and Stachowitsch, Saskia. 2016. “Everyday Matters in Global Private Security Supply Chains: A Feminist Global Political Economy Perspective on Gurkhas in Private Security.” Globalizations 13 (6): 815–29.Google Scholar
Chisholm, Amanda, and Stachowitsch, Saskia. 2017a. “Military Markets, Masculinities, and the Global Political Economy of the Everyday: Understanding Military Outsourcing as Gendered and Racialised.” In Palgrave Handbook on Gender and the Military, eds. Duncanson, Claire and Woodward, Rachel. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 371–85.Google Scholar
Chisholm, Amanda, and Stachowitsch, Saskia. 2017b. “(Re)integrating Feminist Security Studies and Feminist Global Political Economy: Continuing the Conversation.” Politics & Gender 13 (4): 710–15.Google Scholar
Cohn, Carol. 2008. “Mainstreaming Gender in UN Security Policy: A Path to Political Transformation?” In Global Governance: Feminist Perspectives, eds. Rai, Shirin M. and Waylen, Georgina. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 185–206.Google Scholar
Cordell, Kristen. 2012. “From Remedial Action to Women's Empowerment. Implications of the US National Action Plan for PMSCs.” Journal of International Peace Operations 7 (4): 12–13.Google Scholar
de Jong, Sara, and Kimm, Susanne. 2017. “The Co-optation of Feminisms: A Research Agenda.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 19 (2): 185–200.Google Scholar
Dyvik, Synne L. 2014. “Women as Practitioners ‘Practitioners’ and ‘Targets.’” International Feminist Journal of Politics 16 (3): 410–29.Google Scholar
Eichler, Maya, ed. 2013. “Gender and the Privatization of Security: Neoliberal Transformation of the Militarized Gender Order.” Critical Studies on Security 1 (3): 311–25.Google Scholar
Eichler, Maya. 2014. “Citizenship and the Contracting Out of Military Work: From National Conscription to Globalized Recruitment.” Citizenship Studies 18 (6-7): 600–614.Google Scholar
Eichler, Maya. 2015a. Gender and Private Security in Global Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Eichler, Maya. 2015b. “PMSCs and Gender.” In Routledge Handbook of Private Security Studies, eds. Abrahamsen, Rita and Leander, Anna. London: Routledge, 158–67.Google Scholar
Elias, Juanita. 2013. “Davos Woman to the Rescue of Global Capitalism.” International Political Sociology 7 (2): 152–69.Google Scholar
Elias, Juanita. 2015. “Introduction: Feminist Security Studies and Feminist Political Economy: Crossing Divides and Rebuilding Bridges.” Politics & Gender 11 (2): 406–8.Google Scholar
Enloe, Cynthia. 1989. Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Eveline, Joan, and Bacchi, Carol. 2005. “What Are We Mainstreaming When We Mainstream Gender?” International Feminist Journal of Politics 7 (4): 496–512.Google Scholar
Fairclough, Norman. 2001. Language and Power. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Fairclough, Norman. 2003. Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ferguson, Lucy, and Alarcón, Daniela Moreno. 2013. “Gender Expertise and the Private Sector: Navigating the Privatization of Gender Equality Funding.” In The Politics of Feminist Knowledge Transfer: Gender Training and Gender Expertise, eds. Bustelo, María, Ferguson, Lucy, and Forest, Maxime. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 62–79.Google Scholar
Ferree, Myra Marx, and Verloo, Mieke. 2016. “Foreword.” In The Politics of Feminist Knowledge Transfer: Gender Training and Gender Expertise, eds. Bustelo, María, Ferguson, Lucy, and Forest, Maxime. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, x–xviii.Google Scholar
Fraser, Nancy. 2013. Fortunes of Feminism: From State-Managed Capitalism to Neoliberal Crisis. New York: Verso Books.Google Scholar
Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF). 2016. “Promoting Good Governance of the Security Sector. DCAF Annual Report 2016.” https://www.dcaf.ch/sites/default/files/imce/About-Dcaf/DCAF-AnnualReport-2016.pdf (accessed June 12, 2018).Google Scholar
Gentry, Caron. 2016. “Chechen Political Violence as Desperation: What Feminist Discourse Analysis Reveals.” In Researching War: Feminist Methods, Ethics and Politics, ed. Wibben, Annick T. R.. London: Routledge, 19–37.Google Scholar
Gibbings, Sheri Lynn. 2011. “No Angry Women at the United Nations: Political Dreams and the Cultural Politics of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 13 (4): 522–38.Google Scholar
Grosser, Kate, and Moon, Jeremy. 2005. “The Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in Gender Mainstreaming.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 7 (4): 532–54.Google Scholar
Hansen, Lene. 2000. “The Little Mermaid's Silent Security Dilemma and the Absence of Gender in the Copenhagen School.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 29 (2): 285–306.Google Scholar
Harrington, Carol. 2011. “Resolution 1325 and Post-Cold War Feminist Politics.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 13 (4): 557–75.Google Scholar
Higate, Paul. 2012. “Drinking Vodka from the ‘Butt-Crack’: Men, Masculinities and Fratriarchy in the Private Militarized Security Company.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 14 (4): 450–69.Google Scholar
Hoard, Season. 2015. Gender Expertise in Public Policy: Towards a Theory of Policy Success. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Hozić, Aida A., and True, Jacqui, eds. 2016. Scandalous Economics: Gender and the Politics of Financial Crises. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hudson, Heidi. 2012. “A Double-Edged Sword of Peace? Reflections on the Tension between Representation and Protection in Gendering Liberal Peacebuilding.” International Peacekeeping 19 (4): 443–60.Google Scholar
International Association of Maritime Security Professionals. N.d. “Maritime Security Professionals Voluntary Professional Code of Practice.” http://psm.du.edu/media/documents/industry_initiatives/iamsp_code_of_practice.pdf (accessed June 12, 2018).Google Scholar
International Code of Conduct Association (ICoCA). 2010. “International Code of Conduct for Private Security Service Providers.” http://www.icoca.ch/sites/all/themes/icoca/assets/icoc_english3.pdf (accessed June 13, 2018).Google Scholar
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). 2008. “Montreux Document on Private Military and Security Companies.” http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0996.pdf (accessed June 12, 2018).Google Scholar
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), and Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF). No date. “Addressing Security and Human Rights Challenges in Complex Environments.” http://www.securityhumanrightshub.com/sites/default/files/publications/ASHRC_Toolkit_V3.pdf (accessed June 13, 2018).Google Scholar
International Stability Operations Association (ISOA). 2012. “Women & International Stability: The Essential Building Blocks for Stronger Communities and a More Peaceful World.” Journal of International Peace Operations 7 (4): 7–18.Google Scholar
International Stability Operations Association (ISOA). 2013. “Code of Conduct.” Version 13.1. http://www.stability-operations.org/resource/resmgr/docs/s_800_13_en_t_-_code_of_cond.pdf (accessed June 13, 2018).Google Scholar
Joachim, Jutta, and Schneiker, Andrea. 2012a. “New Humanitarians? Frame Appropriation through Private Military and Security Companies.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 40 (2): 365–88.Google Scholar
Joachim, Jutta, and Schneiker, Andrea. 2012b. “Of ‘True Professionals’ and ‘Ethical Hero Warriors’: A Gender-Discourse Analysis of Private Military and Security Companies.” Security Dialogue 43 (6): 495–512.Google Scholar
Kantola, Johanna, and Squires, Judith. 2012. “From State Feminism to Market Feminism?” International Political Science Review 33 (4): 382–400.Google Scholar
Khalid, Maryam. 2011. “Gender, Orientalism and Representations of the ‘Other’ in the War on Terror.” Global Change, Peace & Security 23 (1): 15–29.Google Scholar
Kirby, Paul, and Shepherd, Laura J.. 2016a. “The Futures Past of the Women, Peace and Security Agenda.” International Affairs 92 (2): 373–92.Google Scholar
Kirby, Paul, and Shepherd, Laura J.. 2016b. “Reintroducing Women, Peace and Security.” International Affairs 92 (2): 249–54.Google Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena, and True, Jacqui. 2012. “Rethinking the Life Cycles of International Norms: The United Nations and the Global Promotion of Gender Equality.” European Journal of International Relations 18 (1): 103–27.Google Scholar
Laforest, Rachel, and Orsini, Michael. 2005. “Evidence-Based Engagement in the Voluntary Sector: Lessons from Canada.” Social Policy & Administration 39(5): 481–97.Google Scholar
Lang, Sabine. 1997. “The NGOization of Feminism: Institutionalization and Institution Building within the German Women's Movements.” In Transitions, Environments, Translations: Feminism in International Politics, eds. Kaplan, Cora, Scott, Joan W., and Keates, Debra. London: Routledge, 101–20.Google Scholar
MacKenzie, Megan. 2009. “Securitization and Desecuritization: Female Soldiers and the Reconstruction of Women in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone.” Security Studies Quarterly 18 (2): 241–61.Google Scholar
McBride, Keally, and Wibben, Annick T. R.. 2012. “The Gendering of Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan.” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 3 (2): 199–215.Google Scholar
Montreux Document Forum. 2014. “Working Practices of the Montreux Document Forum as Adopted on 16 December 2014.” http://www.mdforum.ch/pdf/2014-12-16-Working-Practices-of-the-Montreux-Document-Forum.pdf (accessed June 13, 2018).Google Scholar
Pingeot, Lou. 2012. “Dangerous Partnership: Private Military and Security Companies and the UN.” Global Policy Forum and Rosa Luxemburg Foundation. https://www.rosalux.de/fileadmin/rls_uploads/pdfs/sonst_publikationen/studie_dangerous_partnership.pdf (accessed June 13, 2018).Google Scholar
Pratt, Nicola, and Richter-Devroe, Sophie. 2011. “Critically Examining UNSCR 1325 on Women, Peace and Security.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 13 (4): 489–503.Google Scholar
Prügl, Elisabeth. 2009. “Does Gender Mainstreaming Work? Feminist Engagements with the German Agricultural State.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 11 (2): 174–95.Google Scholar
Prügl, Elisabeth. 2010. “Feminism and the Postmodern State: Gender Mainstreaming in European Rural Development.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 32 (2): 447–75.Google Scholar
Prügl, Elisabeth. 2011. “Diversity Management and Gender Mainstreaming as Technologies of Government.” Politics & Gender 7 (1): 71–89.Google Scholar
Prügl, Elisabeth. 2012. “‘If Lehman Brothers Had Been Lehman Sisters … ’ Gender and Myth in the Aftermath of the Financial Crisis.” International Political Sociology 6 (1): 21–35.Google Scholar
Prügl, Elisabeth. 2015. “Neoliberalising Feminism.” New Political Economy 20 (4): 614–61.Google Scholar
Prügl, Elisabeth. 2016. “How to Wield Feminist Power.” In The Politics of Feminist Knowledge Transfer: Gender Training and Gender Expertise, eds. Bustelo, María, Ferguson, Lucy, and Forest, Maxime. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 25–42.Google Scholar
Prügl, Elisabeth, and True, Jacqui. 2014. “Equality Means Business? Governing Gender through Transnational Public-Private Partnerships.” Review of International Political Economy 21 (6): 1137–69.Google Scholar
Reeves, Audrey. 2012. “Feminist Knowledge and Emerging Governmentality in UN Peacekeeping.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 14 (3): 348–69.Google Scholar
Reeves, Audrey, and Doherty, Anike. 2012. “Gender and Private Military and Security Companies.” Journal of International Peace Operations 7 (4): 8–9.Google Scholar
Roberts, Adrienne. 2015. “The Political Economy of ‘Transnational Business Feminism.’” International Feminist Journal of Politics 17 (2): 209–31.Google Scholar
Roberts, Adrienne, and Soederberg, Susanne. 2012. “Gender Equality as ‘Smart Economics’? A Critique of the 2012 World Development Report.” Third World Quarterly 33 (5): 949–68.Google Scholar
Said, Edward W. 1978. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Schaub, Gary Jr., and Kelty, Ryan. 2016. Private Military and Security Contractors: Controlling the Corporate Warrior. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Schultz, Sabrina, and Yeung, Christina. 2008. “Private Military Security Companies and Gender.” In Gender and Security Sector Reform Toolkit, eds. Bastick, Megan and Valasek, Kristin. Geneva: DCAF, OSCE/ODIHR, UN-INSTRAW.Google Scholar
Shepherd, Laura J. 2006. “Veiled References: Constructions of Gender in the Bush Administration Discourse on the Attacks on Afghanistan Post-9/11.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 8 (1): 19–41.Google Scholar
Shepherd, Laura J. 2008. Gender, Violence and Security. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Shepherd, Laura J. 2011. “Sex, Security and Superhero(in)es: From 1325 to 1820 and Beyond.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 13 (4): 504–21.Google Scholar
Sjoberg, Laura, and Lobasz, Jennifer K.. 2011. “The State of Feminist Security Studies: A Conversation. Introduction.” Politics & Gender 7 (4): 573–604.Google Scholar
South Eastern and Eastern Europe Clearinghouse for the Control of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SEESAC). 2006. “Sarajevo Code of Conduct for Private Security Companies.” http://www.seesac.org/f/docs/Private-Security-Companies/The-Sarajevo-Code-of-Conduct-for-Private-Security-Companies-EN.pdf (accessed June 13, 2018).Google Scholar
Sperling, Valerie. 2015. “Engendering Accountability in Private Security and Public Peacekeeping.” In Gender and Private Security in Global Politics, ed. Eichler, Maya. New York: Oxford University Press, 169–86.Google Scholar
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravort. 1999. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Stachowitsch, Saskia. 2013. “Military Privatization and the Remasculinization of the State: Making the Link between the Outsourcing of Military Security and Gendered State Transformations.” International Relations 27 (1): 74–94.Google Scholar
Stachowitsch, Saskia. 2014. “The Reconstruction of Masculinities in Global Politics: Gendering Strategies in the Field of Private Security.” Men and Masculinities 18 (3): 363–86.Google Scholar
Stachowitsch, Saskia. 2015. “Military Privatization as a Gendered Process: A Case for Integrating Feminist International Relations and Feminist State Theories.” In Gender and Private Security in Global Politics, ed. Eichler, Maya. New York: Oxford University Press, 19–36.Google Scholar
Tickner, J. Ann 1992. Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
True, Jacqui. 2003. “Mainstreaming Gender in Global Public Policy.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 5 (3): 368–96.Google Scholar
True, Jacqui. 2012. The Political Economy of Violence against Women. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
True, Jacqui. 2016. “The Global Financial Crisis’ Silver Bullet: Women Leaders and Leaning-In.” In Scandalous Economics: Gender and the Politics of Financial Crises, eds. Hozić, Aida A. and True, Jacqui. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 41–56.Google Scholar
True, Jacqui, and Parisi, Laura. 2013. “Gender Mainstreaming Strategies in International Governance.” In Feminist Strategies in International Governance, eds. Çağlar, Gülay, Prügl, Elisabeth, and Zwingel, Susanne. London: Routledge, 37–56.Google Scholar
United Nations Security Council. 2000. “Resolution 1325.” https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N00/720/18/PDF/N0072018.pdf?OpenElement (accessed June 13, 2018).Google Scholar
van Dijk, Teun A. 1993. “The Principles of Discourse Analysis.” Discourse and Society 4 (2): 249–83.Google Scholar
Walby, Sylvia. 2005 “Gender Mainstreaming: Productive Tensions in Theory and Practice.” Social Politics 12 (3): 321–43.Google Scholar
Wibben, Annick T. R. 2011. Feminist Security Studies: A Narrative Approach. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Williams, Mariama. 2013. “A Perspective on Feminist International Organizing from the Bottom Up: The Case of IGTN and the WTO.” In Feminist Strategies in International Governance, eds. Çağlar, Gülay, Prügl, Elisabeth, and Zwingel, Susanne. London: Routledge, 92–108.Google Scholar
Wodak, Ruth. 2009. “Critical Discourse Analysis: History, Agenda, Theory, and Methodology.” In Methods for Critical Discourse Analysis, 2nd rev. ed., eds. Wodak, Ruth and Meyer, Michael. London: Sage, 1–33.Google Scholar
Zalewski, Marysia. 2010. “‘I Don't Even Know What Gender Is’: A Discussion of the Connections between Gender, Gender Mainstreaming and Feminist Theory.” Review of International Studies 36 (1): 3–27.Google Scholar