Hostname: page-component-669899f699-8p65j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-27T10:30:53.947Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Is Svalbard a pristine ecosystem? Reconstructing 420 years of human presence in an Arctic archipelago

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 May 2016

Frigga Kruse
Frigga Kruse*
Affiliation:
Arctic Centre, University of Groningen, Aweg 30, 9718 CW Groningen, Netherlands ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The Arctic is commonly perceived as a pristine wilderness, yet more than four centuries of human industry have not left Svalbard untouched. This paper explores the historical dimension of human-induced ecosystem change using human presence as a proxy. Its aims are fourfold: to reconstruct and quantify historical human presence, to ascertain if human presence is a suitable indicator of long-term anthropogenic pressure, to deduce trends in anthropogenic pressure on five selected species of game animal, and to postulate trends in their subpopulation sizes. Published sources give rise to 57 datasets dealing with the annual voyages to Svalbard as well as the participants in them. All known archaeological sites are visualised in a distribution map. Despite the large amount of data, the quantification of historical human presence remains biased and partial. Only with the aid of a timeline of known milestones is it possible to make hypotheses about changes in anthropogenic pressure and animal subpopulations over time. The exercise is nonetheless a necessary and instructive one: it confirms that the erroneous view of Svalbard as a pristine ecosystem hinders timely historical-ecological research. Future work must aim at the systematic quantification of past human impact in a holistic approach to environmental conservation and restoration.

Type
Research Article
Information
Polar Record , Volume 52 , Issue 5 , September 2016 , pp. 518 - 534
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Allen, R.C. and Keay, I.. 2001. The first great whale extinction: the end of the Bowhead whale in the eastern Arctic. Explorations in Economic History 38: 448–477.Google Scholar
Allen, R.C. and Keay, I.. 2004. Saving the whales: lessons from the extinction of the eastern Arctic Bowhead. Journal of Economic History 64 (2): 400–432.Google Scholar
Anastasopoulou, S., Chobotova, V., Dawson, T., and others. 2007. Identifying and assessing socio–economic and environmental drivers that affect ecosystems and their services. RUBICODE – Rationalising Biodiversity Conservation in Dynamic Ecosystems. URL: http://www.rubicode.net/rubicode/submenuReports.html (accessed 2 March 2015).Google Scholar
Arctic Studies Centre. 2016. Arctic crashes. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institute, Arctic Studies Centre, Department of Anthropology. URL: http://naturalhistory.si.edu/arctic/html/Arctic_crashes.html (accessed 22 March 2016).Google Scholar
Arlov, T. 1989. A short history of Svalbard. Oslo: Norwegian Polar Institute.Google Scholar
Arlov, T. 2003. Svalbards historie [Svalbard's history]. Oslo: Tapir Akademisk Forlag.Google Scholar
Avango, D. and Hacquebord, L.. 2008. The history and heritage of natural resources exploitation in the Arctic and Antarctic: the LASHIPA project. Industrial Patrimony 19: 7–16.Google Scholar
Belov, M. 1956. Istoriya otkrytiya i osvoeniya Severnogo Morskogo Puti: Tom 1. Arkticheskoe moreplavanie s drevnejshih vremen do serediny XIX veka. [The history of the discovery and development of the Northern Sea Route: Volume 1. Arctic navigation from ancient times until the mid-nineteenth century] Moscow.Google Scholar
Berkes, F. and Folke, C.. 1998. Navigating social–ecological systems: building resilience for complexity and change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Born, E.W., Gjertz, I. and Reeves, R.R.. 1995. Population assessment of Atlantic walrus. Oslo: Norwegian Polar Institute.Google Scholar
Brown, R.N.R. 1912. The commercial development of Spitsbergen. Scottish Geographical Magazine 28 (11): 561–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, R.N.R. 1915. Spitsbergen in 1914. Geographical Journal 46 (1): 10–21.Google Scholar
Brown, R.N.R. 1919a. Spitsbergen, terra nullius. Geographical Review 7 (5): 311–321.Google Scholar
Brown, R.N.R. 1919b. The present state of Spitsbergen. Scottish Geographical Magazine 35 (6): 201–212.Google Scholar
Brown, R.N.R. 1920. Spitsbergen. An account of exploration, hunting, the mineral riches and future potentialities of an Arctic archipelago. London: Seeley.Google Scholar
Brown, R.N.R. 1927. Preservation of wildlife in Spitsbergen. Scottish Geographical Magazine 43 (3): 167–170.Google Scholar
Bruijn, J.R. and Davids, C.A.. 1975. Jonas vrij, de Nederlandse walvisvaart, in het bijzonder de Amsterdamse, in de Jaren 1640–1664. [Jonas free, Dutch whaling, particularly Amsterdam whaling, in the years 1640-1664]. Economisch– en social–historisch jaarboek 38: 141–178.Google Scholar
CAFF (Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna). 2013. Arctic biodiversity assessment. Status and trends in Arctic biodiversity. Akureyi: Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna.Google Scholar
CAFF (Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna). 2015. Conservation of Arctic flora and fauna. URL: http://www.caff.is/ (accessed 20 October 2015). Akureyri: Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna.Google Scholar
Conway, M. 1906. No man's land. A history of Spitsbergen from its discovery in 1596 to the beginning of the scientific exploration of the country. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Crumley, C.L. 1994. Historical ecology: a multidimensional ecological orientation. In: Crumley, C.L. (editor). Historical ecology: cultural knowledge and changing landscapes. Santa Fe/NM: School of American Research Press.Google Scholar
Crumley, C.L., 2007. Historical ecology: integrated thinking at multiple temporal and spatial scales. In: The world system and the Earth system: global socioenvironmental change and sustainability since the Neolithic. Walnut Creek CA: Left Coast Press: 15–28.Google Scholar
Dalén, L., Kvaløy, K., Linnell, J.D.C. and others. 2006. Population structure in a critically endangered arctic fox population: does genetics matter? Molecular Ecology 15: 2809–2819.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Jong, C. 1972–1979. Geschiedenis van de oude nederlandse walvisvaart [History of old Dutch whaling] Part 1 to 3. Pretoria: University of South Africa.Google Scholar
Derocher, A. E., Aars, J., Amstrup, S. C. and others. 2013. Rapid ecosystem change and polar bear conservation. Conservation Letters 6 (5): 368–375.Google Scholar
Dinç, N. 2006. Traditional and interactive animation: from perspective of storytelling and production process. Istanbul. (Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium of Interactive Media Design at Yeditepe University, Istanbul i2006). URL: http://newmedia.yeditepe.edu.tr/pdfs/isimd_06/06.pdf (accessed 29 March 2016).Google Scholar
Dole, H. 1922. America in Spitsbergen. The Romance of an Arctic coal–mine. Parts 1 and 2. Boston: Marshall Jones Company.Google Scholar
Dufferin and Ava, Marquess of. 1867. Letters from high latitudes. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
Goldberg, F. 2003. Drama in the Arctic. S.O.S Italia. Oslo: Fram Museum.Google Scholar
Governor of Svalbard. 2012. Regulations relating to the harvest of the fauna on Svalbard. Longyearbyen: Governor of Svalbard. URL: www.sysselmannen.no (accessed 20 October 2015).Google Scholar
Governor of Svalbard. 2013. Reiselivsstatistikk for Svalbard 2013 [Tourism statistics for Svalbard 2013]. Longyearbyen: Governor of Svalbard.Google Scholar
Governor of Svalbard. 2014. Reiselivsstatistikk for Svalbard 2014 [Tourisn statistics for Svalbard 2014]. Longyearbyen: Governor of Svalbard.Google Scholar
Hacquebord, L. 1999. The hunting of the Greenland right whale in Svalbard, its interaction with climate and its impact on the marine ecosystem. Polar Record 18 (2): 375–382.Google Scholar
Hagen, D., Vistad, O.I., Eide, N.E. and others. 2012. Managing visitor sites in Svalbard: from a precautionary approach towards knowledge–based management. Polar Research 31: 18432. URL: http://www.polarresearch.net/index.php/polar/article/view/18432 Google Scholar
Hartnell, C. C. 2009. Arctic network builders: the Arctic Coal Company's operations on Spitsbergen and its relationship with the environment. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Houghton: Michigan Technological University.Google Scholar
Hassan, R., Scholes, R. and Ash, N.. 2005. MA [Millennium Ecosystem Assessment] conceptual framework. In: Hassan, R., Scholes, R. and Ash, N. (editors). Ecosystem and human well-being: current state and trends, volume 1. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Series. Washington D.C.: Island Press: 26–36.Google Scholar
Holland, C. 1994. Arctic exploration and development, c. 500 to 1915: an encyclopedia. New York: Garland.Google Scholar
Hultgreen, T. 2000. Den russiske fangsten på Svalbard [The Russian hunt on Svalbard]. Tromsø: Universität von Tromsø.Google Scholar
IASC (International Arctic Science Committee). 2015. Integrating Arctic research – a roadmap for the future. Potsdam: IASC (Final report of the 3rd International Conference on Arctic Research Planning ICARP III).Google Scholar
Jackson, G. 1978. The British whaling trade. London: A & C Black.Google Scholar
Jesinghaus, J. 1999. Environmental pressure indices handbook. Volume 1: a European system of environmental pressure indices. Luxembourg: European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Systems, Informatics and Safety (Report TP 361).Google Scholar
Jones, M. K. 2008. Swedish scientific expeditions to Spitsbergen, 1758–1908. Tijdschrift voor Skandinavistiek 29: 219–235.Google Scholar
Kahn, A. and Bouie, J. 2015. The Atlantic slave trade in two minutes. Slate. URL: http://www.slate.com/articles/life/the_history_of_american_slavery/2015/06/animated_interactive_of_the_history_of_the_atlantic_slave_trade.html (accessed 18 October 2015).Google Scholar
Kjær, K.-G. 2008. Where have all the barque rigged sealers gone? Polar Record 44 (230): 265–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kjær, K.-G. 2011. Serial slaughter: the development of the north Norwegian sealing fleet: 1859–1909. Polar Record 47 (240): 1–20.Google Scholar
Kraikovsky, A.V. 2009. The governmental projects for the development of Russian whaling in the 18th century. In: Ringstad, J. E. (editor). Whaling and history III. Sandefjord: The Whaling Museum: 171–176.Google Scholar
Kraikovsky, A.V., Alekseeva, Y., Dadykina, M. and other. 2012. The organization of Pomor hunting expeditions to Spitsbergen in the 18th century. In: Hacquebord, L. (editor). LASHIPA. History of large scale resource exploitation in polar areas. Groningen: Barkhuis: 1–16.Google Scholar
Kruse, F. 2013. Frozen assets. British mining, exploration, and geopolitics on Spitsbergen, 1904–53. Groningen: Barkhuis.Google Scholar
Lamont, J. 1861. Seasons with the sea–horses. London: Hurst and Blackett.Google Scholar
Lamont, J. 1876. Yachting in the Arctic seas. London: Chatto and Windus.Google Scholar
Lottin, V., Bravais, A. and Lilliehöök, C.B.. 1842. Voyages de la commission scientifique du nord, en Scandinavie, en Laponie, au Spitzberg et aux Feröe, pendant les années 1838, 1839 et 1840, sur la corvette ‘La Recherche’. Paris: Arthus Bertrand.Google Scholar
Lønø, O. 1972. The catch of walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) in the areas of Svalbard, Novaya Zemlya, and Franz Josef Land. In: Norsk Polarinstitutt. Årbok 1970. Oslo: Norsk Polarinstitutt: 199–212.Google Scholar
Lønø, O. 2014. Norske fangstmenns overvintringer på Svalbard og Jan Mayen 1795–1973. [Norwegian hunters’ overwinterings in Svalbard and Jan Mayen 1795–1973] Longyearbyen: Svalbard Museum.Google Scholar
Manovich, L. 2001. The language of new media. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Mansfield, E. 1910. Astria: the ice maiden. London: Lonsdale Press.Google Scholar
Maxim, L., Spangenberg, J. and O'Connor, M.. 2009. An analysis of risks for biodiversity under the DPSIR framework. Ecological Economy 69: 12–23.Google Scholar
McGhee, R. 2006. The last imaginary place: a human history of the Arctic world. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Millennium ecosystem assessment. Washington D.C: Island Press. URL: http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/Index-2.html (accessed 2 March 2015).Google Scholar
MOSJ (Miljøovervåkting Svalbard og Jan Mayen [Environmental Monitoring of Svalbard and Jan Mayen]). No date. Tromsø: Norwegian Polar Institute. URL: http://www.mosj.no/en/ (accessed 20 October 2015).Google Scholar
Nelson, G.C., Bennett, E., Berhe, A.A. and others. 2005. Drivers of change in ecosystem condition and services. In: Carpenter, S.R., Pingali, P.L., Bennett, E.M. and others (editors). Ecosystem and human well-being: scenarios. Vol. 2. Washington D.C.: Island Press: (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Series): 173–222. URL: http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.331.aspx.pdf (accessed 2 March 2015).Google Scholar
Norwegian Government 2001. Svalbard Environmental Protection Act 2001. Act of 15 June 2001 No. 79. Oslo: Ministry of Climate and Environment. URL: https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/svalbard-environmental-protection-act/id173945/ (accessed 27 February 2015).Google Scholar
Norwegian Polar Institute. 2014. Norwegian Polar Institute map data and services. Tromsø: Norwegian Polar Institute. URL: http://geodata.npolar.no/#thematic-map-services (accessed: 14 October 2015).Google Scholar
Phillipps-Wolley, C. 1884. The trottings of a tenderfoot: a visit to the Columbian fiords and Spitzbergen. London: Richard Bentley and Son.Google Scholar
Rave, C. 1916. Tagebuch von der verunglückten Expedition Schröder-Stranz. Köln: Hermann und Friedrich Schaffstein.Google Scholar
Reilly, J.T. 2009. Greetings from Spitsbergen. Tourists at the eternal ice, 1827–1914. Trondheim: Tapir Academic Press.Google Scholar
Rekacewicz, P. 2005. Distribution of reindeer population in the Barents region. Arendal: GRID-Arendal and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). URL: http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/distribution-of-reindeer-population-in-the-barents-region_e13e (accessed 29 March 2016)Google Scholar
Reymert, P. K. and Moen, O.. 2015. Fangsthytter på Svalbard 1794–2015 [Hunting huts in Svalbard 1794–2015]. Longyearbyen: Svalbard Museum.Google Scholar
Rossnes, G. 1993. Norsk overvintringsfangst på Svalbard 1895–1940 [Norwegian overwintering hunting in Svalbard 1895–1940]. Oslo: Norsk Polarinstitutt.Google Scholar
Schokkenbroek, J. C. A. 2008. Trying–out. Amsterdam: Aksant.Google Scholar
Scoresby, W. 1820. An account of the Arctic regions with a history and description of the northern whale-fishery. 2 vols. Newton Abbot: Redwood Press.Google Scholar
Smeets, E. and Weterings, R.. 1999. Environmental indicators: typology and overview. Copenhaden: EEA (Technical report 25).Google Scholar
Spence, B. 1980. The story of whaling: harpooned. New York: Crescent Books.Google Scholar
Norway, Statistics. 2015. Historisk statistikk – Svalbard. URL: https://www.ssb.no/a/histstat/svalbard/svalbard.html (accessed: 9 October 2015).Google Scholar
Thuesen, N. P. 2005. Svalbards historie i årstall [Svalbard's history in years]. Oslo: Orion.Google Scholar
Zedrosser, Z., Dahle, B., Swenson, J.E. and other. 2001. Status and management of the brown bear in Europe. Ursus 12: 9–20.Google Scholar