Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T18:44:20.307Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Defining security in a changing Arctic: helping to prevent an Arctic security dilemma

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 November 2016

Marzia Scopelliti  and
Elena Conde Pérez
Marzia Scopelliti
Affiliation:
Department of International Public and Private Law, ComplutenseUniversity of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria, s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain ([email protected])
Elena Conde Pérez
Affiliation:
Department of International Public and Private Law, ComplutenseUniversity of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria, s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In recent years, radical changes such as rapid warming and ice retreat have become evident in the Arctic region, as recognised by the scientific community, as well as Arctic and non-Arctic states. Against this background, where the Arctic is accumulating economic importance and geopolitical significance for Arctic states and international stakeholders, the main regional actors have engaged in increased cooperation efforts, which is in contrast to the often invoked talk about an imminent conflict or ‘race for resources in the region’. At the same time, modernisation and expansion of military activities and capabilities have been pursued by several Arctic states. While these measures cannot be exclusively attributed to a militarisation of the Arctic and require further discussion, a misperception of such actions may result in the destabilisation of regional cooperation efforts. Furthermore, when considered in a broader context, possible threats to peaceful coexistence in the Arctic are more likely to arise from the present global situation. For example, the invasion of Ukraine has provoked a partial shift in regional cooperation and an uncontrolled spillover effect of the conflict between Russia and Western countries could disrupt regional stability. Drawing on the perspective of International Relations (IR) literature, and considering the absence of a regional institution devoted to security issues, this article highlights the importance of adopting confidence- and security-building measures among all relevant actors in order to create a forum for the discussion of ‘hard’ security topics, to prevent any destabilising effect on Arctic cooperation and security. Such measures may be promoted within existing fora, primarily the Arctic Council.

Type
THEMED SECTION: Arctic in the Anthropocene: sustainability in a new polar age
Information
Polar Record , Volume 52 , Issue 6 , November 2016 , pp. 672 - 679
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ACGF (Arctic Coast Guard Forum), 2015. Joint statement on the establishment of the Arctic Coast Guard Forum of 30 October 2015. New London: US Coast Guard Academy. URL: http://arcticportal.org/ap-library/news/1605-text-of-the-joint-statement-officially-establishing-the-arctic-coast-guard-forum (accessed 4 August 2016).Google Scholar
AEPS (Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy). 1991. (14 June 1991). Rovaniemi, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the United States. (30 ILM 1624). URL: http://library.arcticportal.org/1542/. (accessed 4 August 2016).Google Scholar
Arctic Council. 2011. Agreement on cooperation on aeronautical and maritime search and rescue in the Arctic (SAR) of 12 May 2011. Tromsø: Arctic Council Secretariat. URL: https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/handle/11374/531 (accessed 4 August 2016).Google Scholar
Arctic Council. 2013. Agreement on cooperation on marine oil pollution, preparedness and response in the Arctic (OPPRA) of 15 May 2013. Tromsø: Arctic Council Secretariat. URL: https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/handle/11374/529 (accessed: 4 August 2016).Google Scholar
AMAP (Arctic Monitoring Assessment Programme). 2009. Physical/geographical characteristics of the Arctic. Oslo: AMAP.Google Scholar
Åtland, K. 2008. Mikhail Gorbachev, the Murmansk Initiative, and the desecurisation of interstate relations in the Arctic. Cooperation and Conflict 43 (3): 289–311.Google Scholar
Åtland, K. 2014. Interstate relations in the Arctic: an emerging security dilemma? Comparative Strategy 33 (2): 145–166.Google Scholar
Axworthy, T.S., Koivurova, T. and Hasanat, W., (editors). 2012. The Arctic Council: Its place in the future of Arctic governance. Toronto: Munk-Gordon Arctic Security Program. URL: http://gordonfoundation.ca/sites/default/files/publications/The%20Arctic%20Council_FULL_1.pdf (accessed 27 June 2016).Google Scholar
Bergh, K. and Oldberg, I.. 2011. The new Arctic: Building cooperation in the face of emerging challenges. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute: 1–8. URL: https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/SIPRIArcticConf110426.pdf (accessed 30 June 2016).Google Scholar
Bird, K.J., Charpentier, R.R., Gautier, D.L. and others. 2008. Circum-Arctic resource appraisal: estimates undiscovered oil and gas north of the Arctic Circle. U.S. geological survey fact sheet, 2008–3049. Washington, DC: USGS Science for a changing world. URL: http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3049/fs2008-3049.pdf (accessed 30 June 2016).Google Scholar
Byers, M. 2014. International law and the Arctic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Blenckner, S. 2015. Military spending in Europe in the wake of the Ukraine crisis. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute: 1–9. URL: file:///Users/marziascopelliti/Downloads/1662270%20(1).pdf (accessed 30 June 2016).Google Scholar
Borgerson, S.G. 2008. Arctic meltdown. The economic and security implications of global warming. Foreign Affairs 87 (2): 62–77.Google Scholar
Conde Pérez, E. 2015. Geopolítica del Ártico: el derecho internacional ante los retos del cambio climático en la región. [Geopolitics of the Arctic: international law issues considering climate change in the region] In: Bollo Arocena, M.D. and Quel Lopez, F.J. (editors). Cursos de derecho internacional y relaciones internacionales de Vitoria-Gasteiz [Vitoria-Gasteiz international law and international relations courses] Cizur Menor: Thomson Reuters Aranzadi: 99–159.Google Scholar
Conde Pérez, E. 2016. Delimitaciones marítimas y territoriales en el Ártico: desarrollo y tendencias [Maritime and territorial boundaries in the Arctic: development and trends . Revista Española de Derecho Internacional [Spanish Journal of International Law] 68 (1): 235–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Depledge, D. 2015. Hard security developments. In: Jokela, J. (editor). Arctic security matters. Report 24. Paris: European Union Institute for Security Studies. URL: http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/Report_24_Arctic_matters.pdf (accessed 29 June 2016).Google Scholar
European Parliament. 2008. Resolution of 9 October 2008 on Arctic Governance. Doc. P6_TA (2008)0474. Brussels: European Parliament. URL: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&language=EN&reference=P6-TA-2008-474 (accessed 1 July 2016).Google Scholar
Gorbachev, M. 1987. Mikhail Gorbachev's speech in Murmansk at the ceremonial meeting on the occasion of the presentation of the order of Lenin and the gold star to the city of Murmansk. Moscow: Novosti Press Agency. URL: https://www.barentsinfo.fi/docs/Gorbachev_speech.pdf (accessed 27 July 2016).Google Scholar
Graczyk, P. and Koivurova, T.. 2015. The Arctic Council. In: Jensen, L. C. and Hønneland, G. (editors). Handbook of the politics of the Arctic. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing: 298–327.Google Scholar
Haglund, C., Søreide, I.E. and others. 2015. Fem nordiske ministre i felles kronikk: Russisk propaganda bidrar til å så splid [Five Nordic ministers in joint op-ed: Russian propaganda helps to sow discord. Aftenposten], 9 April 2015.Google Scholar
Heininen, L. 2011. The end of the post-Cold War in the Arctic. Nordia Geographical Publications 40 (4): 31–42.Google Scholar
Heininen, L., Sergunin, A. and , G. Yarovoy, A. 2014. Russian strategies in the Arctic: avoiding a new Cold War. Moscow: Valdai Discussion Club Grantees Report. URL: http://www.uarctic.org/media/857300/arctic_eng.pdf (accessed 27 June 2016).Google Scholar
Herz, J. 1950. Idealist internationalism and the security dilemma. World Politics 2 (2): 157–180.Google Scholar
Hilde, P.S. 2013. The ‘new’ Arctic – the military dimension. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 15 (2): 130–153.Google Scholar
Hoogensen Gjørv, G. 2012. Security by any other name: Negative security, positive security, and a multi-actor security approach. Review of International Studies 38 (04): 835–859.Google Scholar
Huebert, R., Exner-Pirot, H., Lajeunesse, A. and other. 2012. Climate change & international security: The Arctic as a bellwether. Arlington: Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. URL: http://www.c2es.org/publications/climate-change-international-arctic-security (accessed 30 June 2016).Google Scholar
Huebert, R. 2013. Cooperation or conflict in the new Arctic? Too simple of a dichotomy! In: Berkman, P. and Vylegzhanin, A. (editors). Environmental security in the Arctic Ocean. Dordrecht: Springer: 195–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ilulissat Declaration. 2008. Declaration by foreign ministers of Denmark, Norway, Russia, USA and Canada. 28 May 2008. Ilulissat: Arctic Ocean Conference. 48 ILM 362. URL: https://www.regjeringen.no/globalassets/upload/ud/080525_arctic_ocean_conference-_outcome.pdf (accessed 4 August 2016).Google Scholar
International Boundaries Research Unit (IBRU) Centre for Borders Research. 2015. Maritime jurisdiction and borders in the Arctic region. Durham: Durham University. URL: https://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/ibru/resources/Arcticmap04-08-15.pdf (accessed 1 July 2016).Google Scholar
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2013. Summary for policy makers. In: Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., and 7 others (editors). Climate Change 2013: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1–27. URL: https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WGIAR5_SPM_brochure_en.pdf (accessed 30 June 2016).Google Scholar
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2014. Summary for policymakers. In: Field, C.B., Barros, V.R., Dokken, D.J. and others (editors). Climate Change 2014: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Part a: global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of working group II to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1–31. URL: http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/report/ (accessed 30 June 2016).Google Scholar
Käpylä, J. and Mikkola, H.. 2015. On Arctic exceptionalism. Critical reflections in the light of the Arctic Sunrise case and the crisis in Ukraine. Helsinki: The Finnish Institute of International Affairs (Working paper 85): 1–22. URL: http://www.fiia.fi/en/publication/502/on_arctic_exceptionalism/ (accessed 29 June 2016).Google Scholar
Klimenko, E. 2014. Russia's evolving Arctic strategy: drivers, challenge and new opportunities. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI Policy Paper 42): 1–26. URL: http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_id=482 (accessed 29 June 2016).Google Scholar
Klimenko, E. 2015. Russia and the Arctic: an end to cooperation? Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI Commentary). URL: https://www.sipri.org/commentary/essay/2015/russia-and-arctic-end-cooperation (accessed 27 July 2016).Google Scholar
Koivurova, T. and Graczyk, P.. 2014. The future of the Arctic Council: navigating between sovereignty and security. In: Murray, R.W. and Nuttall, A.D. (editors). International Relations and the Arctic. Understanding policy and governance. New York: Cambria Press.Google Scholar
Kramska, J. (editor). 2011. Arctic security in an age of climate change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lackenbauer, P. W. 2012. Push to reform Arctic Council raises as many questions as it solves. iPolitics, 17 February 2012.Google Scholar
Molenaar, E. 2012. Current and prospective roles of the Arctic Council system within the context of the Law of the Sea. International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 27 (3): 553–595.Google Scholar
Montgomery, E.B. 2006. Breaking out the security dilemma: realism, reassurance, and the problem of uncertainty. International Security 31 (2): 151–185.Google Scholar
Murray, R.W. and Nuttal, A.D. (editors). 2014. International relations and the Arctic. Understanding policy and governance. New York: Cambria Press.Google Scholar
Nicol, H.N. and Heininen, L.. 2014. Human security, the Arctic Council and climate change: competition or co-existence? Polar Record 50 (252): 80–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olesen, M.R. 2014. Cooperation or conflict in the Arctic: a literature review. Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies (DIIS Working Paper 8): 4–18.Google Scholar
Oslo Declaration. 2015. Declaration concerning the prevention of unregulated high seas fishing in the Central Arctic Ocean of 16 July 2015. Oslo, Canada, Denmark, Norway, the Russian Federation and the United States. URL: https://www.regjeringen.no/globalassets/departementene/ud/vedlegg/folkerett/declaration-on-arctic-fisheries-16-july-2015.pdf (accessed 4 August 2016).Google Scholar
Østhagen, A. 2015. The Arctic coast guard forum: big tasks, small solutions. Washington DC: The Arctic Institute. URL: http://www.thearcticinstitute.org/the-arctic-coast-guard-forum-big-tasks/ (accessed 18 July 2016).Google Scholar
Ottawa Declaration. 1996. Declaration on the establishment of the Arctic Council of 19 September 1996. Ottawa: Arctic Council (35 ILM 1382). URL: https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/handle/11374/85 (accessed 4 August 2016).Google Scholar
Perlo-Freeman, S. A. Fleurant, P.T. Wezeman and other. 2015. Trends in World military expenditure, 2014. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. (SIPRI Fact Sheet): 1–8. URL: http://books.sipri.org/files/FS/SIPRIFS1504.pdf (accessed 30 June 2016).Google Scholar
Pincus, R. and Ali, S.H., (editors). 2015. Diplomacy on ice. Energy and the environment in the Arctic and Antarctic. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Putin, V. 2014. Meeting of the security council on the state policy in the Arctic. Official internet resources of the President of Russia, 22 April 2014. URL: http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/20845 (accessed 16 May 2015).Google Scholar
Regehr, E. 2013. Nato and the Arctic. Vancouver: The Simons Foundation.Google Scholar
Rosamond, A. 2011. Perspectives on security in the Arctic area. Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies. (DIIS Report 9): 1–78.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, E. 2012. Race is on as ice melt reveals Arctic treasures. The New York Times, 18 September 2012.Google Scholar
Rothschild, E. 1995. What is security? Daedalus 124 (3): 53—98.Google Scholar
Schaller, B. 2014. Confidence-& security building measures in the Arctic: the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe as a role model for the area? In: Heininen, L. (editor). Arctic Yearbook 2014. Akureyri: Northern Research Forum: 1–19. URL: http://www.arcticyearbook.com/images/Arcticles_2014/Schaller_AY2014_FINAL.pdf (accessed 30 June 2016).Google Scholar
United Nations. 1982. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of 10 December 1982. Montego Bay: United Nations (1833 UNTS 3).Google Scholar
United Nations. 1992. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) of 09 May 1992. New York: United Nations (1771 UNTS 107).Google Scholar
Wallensteen, P. and Möller, F.. 2003. Conflict prevention: methodology for knowing the unknown. Uppsala Peace Research Papers 17: 1–31.Google Scholar
Waltz, K. 1979. Theory of international politics. New York: McGraw- Hill.Google Scholar
Wezeman, S.T. 2012. Military capabilities in the Arctic. Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI background paper):1–15. URL: http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_id=442 (accessed 10 July 2016).Google Scholar
Yarovoy, G. 2014. Russia's Arctic policy: continuity and changes. In: Murray, R.W. and Nuttal, A.D. (editors). International Relations and the Arctic. Understanding policy and governance. New York: Cambria Press.Google Scholar
Zellen, B.S. (editor). 2013. The fast-changing Arctic: Rethinking Arctic security for a warmer World. Calgary: University of Calgary Press.Google Scholar