Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T08:34:39.377Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The United States and China in the Arctic

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2014

Ingrid Lundestad  and
Øystein Tunsjø
Ingrid Lundestad
Affiliation:
Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, P.O. Box 890 Sentrum, 0104 Oslo. Norway ([email protected])
Øystein Tunsjø
Affiliation:
Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, P.O. Box 890 Sentrum, 0104 Oslo. Norway ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

US-China relations represent the most central bilateral relationship in the world, but few studies investigate the two countries’ approaches to the Arctic. This article explores the geopolitical shifts in the Arctic, and compares and contrasts American and Chinese policy in the region. The article examines to what extent the two have common or conflicting interests, and discusses the potential for US-China friction and rivalry. Some alarmist writers suggest that the future Arctic is set for confrontation. This article, however, argues that the current stakes in the circumpolar Arctic region are not sufficiently high to warrant confrontation between the two states. Cooperation predominantly guides their policies and activities. While they play different roles and increasingly seek to demonstrate their influence, there are common interests, such as in the freedom of the seas, in resource extraction and in developing infrastructure in the region.

Type
Research Article
Information
Polar Record , Volume 51 , Issue 4 , July 2015 , pp. 392 - 403
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexeeva, O.V. and Lasserre, F.. 2012. The snow dragon: China's strategies in the Arctic. China Perspectives 2: 61–68.Google Scholar
AC (Arctic Council). 2011. Observers. URL: http://www.arctic–council.org/index.php/en/about–us/arctic–council/observers (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Bader, J. A. 2012. Obama and China's rise: an insider's account of America's Asia strategy. Washington, DC: Brookings Instituion Press.Google Scholar
Baker, B. 2012. Oil, gas, and the Arctic continental shelf: what conflict? Oil, Gas & Energy Law Intelligence 10 (2):1–17.Google Scholar
Balmasov, S. 2013. Final statistic figures for transit navigation on the NSR in 2013. Kirkenes: NSR Information Office. URL: http://www.arctic–lio.com/node/209 (accessed 15 March 2014).Google Scholar
Benneth, M. 2012. Russian politician and American ambassador emphasize Arctic cooperation. URL: http://foreignpolicyblogs.com/2012/02/14/russian–politician–american–ambassador–emphasize–cooperation/ (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Bierman, S. 2013. Rosneft invites CNPC into East Siberian oil production venture. Bloomberg News, 18 October. URL: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013–10–18/rosneft–invites–cnpc–into–east–siberian–oil–production–venture.html (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Bierman, S and Arkhipov, I.. 2013. CNPC buys stake in Novatek's Yamal LNG project in the Russian Arctic. Bloomberg News, 5 September 2013. URL: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013–09–05/cnpc–buys–stake–in–novatek–s–yamal–lng–project–in–russian–arctic.html (accessed 6 February 2014).Google Scholar
Blank, S. 2013. China's Arctic strategy. The Diplomat 20 June. URL: http://thediplomat.com/2013/06/chinas–arctic–strategy/ (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Blunden, M. 2012. Geopolitics and the northern sea route. International Affairs 88 (1):115–129.Google Scholar
Bogstad, B. 2013. In the Arctic, rich fish stocks meet energy exploration. National Geographic 29 November 2013. URL: http://energyblog.nationalgeographic.com/2013/11/29/in–the–arctic–rich–fish–stocks–meet–energy–exploration/ (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Borgerson, S.G. 2008. Arctic meltdown: the economic and security implications of global warming. Foreign Affairs 87: 63–77.Google Scholar
Borgerson, S.G. 2009. The great game moves north. Foreign Affairs 25 March 2009. URL: http://www.foreignaffairs.com/print/64905 (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Brady, A–M. 2012. Polar stakes: China's polar activities as a benchmark for intentions. Jameston China Brief 20 July 2012. URL: http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f–news/2908445/posts (accessed 15 March 2014).Google Scholar
Breum, M. 2013. Cold, hard facts: why the Arctic is the world's hottest frontier. Global Asia 8 (4): 92–97.Google Scholar
Brosnan, I.G., Leschine, T.M. and Miles, E.L.. 2011. Cooperation or conflict in a changing Arctic? Ocean Development and International Law 42 (1/2): 173–210.Google Scholar
Byers, M. 2009. Who owns the Arctic? Understanding sovereignty disputes in the north, Vancouver, BC: Douglas and McIntyre.Google Scholar
Chazan, G. and Belton, C.. 2012. Gazprom freezes Arctic gas project. Financial Times 29 August 2012. URL: http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/ab331568–f1d8–11e1–bba3–00144feabdc0.html#axzz2qT55idH7 (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Chinese MFA. 2010. China's view of Arctic cooperation, 30 July 2010. URL: http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/tyfls/tfsxw/t812046.htm (accessed 11 March 2014).Google Scholar
Chinese White Paper. 2013. On China armed forces, Information Office of the State Council, the PRC, Beijing. URL: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013–04/16/c_132312681.htm (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Christensen, T. J. 2011. The advantages of an assertive China. Foreign Affairs 90 (2): 54–67.Google Scholar
Clinton, H.R. 2011. America's Pacific century. Foreign Policy 11 October 2011. URL: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/10/11/americas_pacific_century?page=full (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Colvin, C.C. 2011. Henry Bacon seminar. Washington DC: Royal Norwegian Embassy. URL: http://www.norway.org/News_and_events/top–stories/The–2011–Henry–Bacon–Seminar–Arctic–Security–and–Technology1/ (accessed 22 March 2013).Google Scholar
Conley, H.A., Toland, T., Kraut, J. and Østhagen, A.. 2012. A new security architecture for the Arctic: an American perspective. Washington DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies. URL: http://csis.org/files/publication/120117_Conley_ArcticSecurity_Web.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Dawney, K. 2013. China's ambitions in the Arctic. Current Intelligence, 19 March.Google Scholar
Dutton, P. 2012. Law of the sea. In: Dutton, P., Ross, R. and Tunsjø, Ø. (editors). Emerging naval power in the twenty–first century: cooperation and conflict at sea. London: Routledge: 262–280.Google Scholar
Dutton, P., Ross, R. and Tunsjø, Ø. (editors). 2012. Emerging naval power in the twenty–first century: cooperation and conflict at sea. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Erikson, A and Strange, A.M.. 2013. No substitute for experience: Chinese anti–piracy operations in the Gulf of Aden. Newport RI: Naval War College. (China Maritime Study, 10 November 2013). URL: http://www.andrewerickson.com/wp–content/uploads/2013/11/China–Antipiracy–Ops–in–GoA_CMS10_201311.pdf (accessed 6 February 2014).Google Scholar
Forgey, P. 2011. Alaskans hope to see the US asserting Arctic control. Juneau Empire 22 November 2011. URL: http://juneauempire.com/local/2011–11–22/alaskans–hope–see–us–asserting–arctic–control (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Fossum, J.E. and Roussel, S. (editors). 2011. Special edition ‘The Arctic is hot’ Part 2. International Journal 66 (4): 781–980.Google Scholar
Friedberg, A. L. 2012. A contest for supremacy: China, America, and the struggle for mastery in Asia. New York: W. W. Northon & Company.Google Scholar
Garamone, J. 2011. Unified command plan reflects Arctic's importance. Washington DC: American Forces Press Service. URL: http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=63467 (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Gillies, R. 2010. Clinton rebukes Canada on Arctic meeting. The Guardian 29 March 2010. URL: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/feedarticle/9009648 (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Goldstein, L. and Chase, M. 2012. An agenda for U.S.–China maritime partnership. In: Dutton, P., Ross, R. and Tunsjø, Ø. (editors). Emerging naval power in the twenty–first century: cooperation and conflict at sea. London: Routledge: 239–261.Google Scholar
Gottemoeller, R.E. and Tamnes, R. (editors). 2008. High north: high stakes: security, energy, transport, environment. Bergen, Norway: Fagbokforlaget.Google Scholar
Guschin, A. 2013. Understanding China's Arctic policies. The Diplomat 13 November 2013. URL: http://thediplomat.com/2013/11/understanding–chinas–arctic–policies/ (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Holmes, J.R. 2011. The Arctic sea: a new wild west? The Diplomat 20 April 2011. URL: http://thediplomat.com/2011/04/the–arctic–sea–a–new–wild–west/ (accessed 11 March 2014).Google Scholar
Holmes, J.R. 2012. The new great game: the Arctic Ocean. The Diplomat 7 November 2012. URL: http://thediplomat.com/2012/11/the–new–great–game–the–arctic–ocean/ (accessed 11 March 2014).Google Scholar
Holtsmark, S.G. and Smith–Windsor, B.A. (editors). 2009. Security prospects in the high north: geostrategic thaw or freeze? Rome: NATO Defence College Research Division.Google Scholar
Huebert, R. 2013. It's time to talk about Arctic militarization. National Post (Toronto) 6 May 2013. URL: http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2013/05/06/arctic–piece–1–for–monday/ (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Ilulissat declaration. 2008. URL: http://www.oceanlaw.org/downloads/arctic/Ilulissat_Declaration.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
International Arctic Research Center. 2014. International collaborations, partners, and related organizations.Fairbanks AK: International Arctic Research Center. URL: http://www.iarc.uaf.edu/en/collaborations (accessed 15 March 2014).Google Scholar
Jakobson, L. 2010. China prepares for an ice–free Arctic. Stockholm: SIPRI (SIPRI Insight on Peace and Security 2).Google Scholar
Jakobson, L. 2012. Northeast Asia turns its attention to the Arctic. Seattle WA and Washington DC: The National Bureau of Asian Research (analysis brief, 17 December 2012).Google Scholar
Jakobson, L. 2013. China wants to be heard on Arctic issues. Global Asia 8 (4): 98–101.Google Scholar
Jakobson, L. and Peng, J.. 2011. China's Arctic aspirations. Stockholm: SIPRI (SIPRI policy paper 34).Google Scholar
Jiang, J. and Sinton, J.. 2011. Overseas investments by Chinese oil companies. Paris: International Energy Agency.Google Scholar
Johnston, A.I. 2013. How new and assertive is China's new assertiveness? International Security 37 (4): 7–48.Google Scholar
Joling, D. 2011. Gulf oil spill report emphasizes risks of Arctic drilling. Huffington Post 11 January 2011. URL: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/12/gulf–oil–spill–report_n_807854.html (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Katakey, R. and Kennedy, W.. 2013. Russia gives China Arctic access as energy giants embrace. Financial Post 25 March 2013. URL: http://business.financialpost.com/2013/03/25/russia–give–china–arctic–access–as–energy–giants–embrace/?__lsa=e83b–c666 (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Keil, K. 2014. The role of Arctic hydrocarbons for future energy security. Berkeley, CA: Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability. URL: http://nautilus.org/napsnet/napsnet-special-reports/the-role-of-arctic-hydrocarbons-for-future-energy-security/ Google Scholar
Keil, K. and Raspotnik, A.. 2013. The myth of Arctic shipping: why the northern sea route is still of limited geo–economic importance. The Arctic Institute 8 September 2013. URL: http://www.thearcticinstitute.org/2013/09/the–myth–of–arctic–shipping–why_8.html#; (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Koivurova, T. 2010. Limits and possibilities of the Arctic Council in a rapidly changing scene of Arctic governance. Polar Record 46 (237): 146–156.Google Scholar
Lasserre, F. 2010. China and the Arctic: threat or cooperation potential for Canada? China Papers 11.Google Scholar
Lasserre, F. and Pelletier, S.. 2011. Polar super seaways? Maritime transportation in the Arctic: an analysis of shipowners’ intentions. Journal of Transport Geography 19 (6): 1465–1473.Google Scholar
Lundestad, I. 2013. US security policy in the Arctic since 1981: American strategy, Russian relationship. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Oslo: University of Oslo, Department of Archaeology, Conservation and History.Google Scholar
Mearsheimer, J. J. 2006. China's unpeaceful rise. Current History 105 (690):160–162.Google Scholar
Mearsheimer, J. J. 2014. The tragedy of great power politics. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.Google Scholar
Miles, D. 2013. Eucom promotes cooperation among Arctic partners. Washington DC: American Forces Press Service. URL: http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=121126 (accessed 17 February 2014).Google Scholar
Mitchell, T. and Milne, R.. 2013. First Chinese cargo ship nears end of northeast passage transit. Financial Times 6 September 2013. URL: http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/010fa1bc–16cd–11e3–9ec2–00144feabdc0.html (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Murphy, K. 2009. U.S. bans expanded commercial fishing in the Arctic. Los Angeles Times 20 August 2009. URL: http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/greenspace/2009/08/us–bans–expanded–commercial–fishing–in–the–arctic.html (accessed 17 February 2014).Google Scholar
Murthy, R. 2012. China, India enter heating–up Arctic race. Asia Times 25 January 2012.Google Scholar
NIDS. 2011. East Asian strategic review. Tokyo: The National Institute for Defense Studies, Japan.Google Scholar
Offerdal, K. 2009. High north energy: myths and realities. In: Holtsmark, S.G. and Smith–Windsor, B.A. (editors). Security prospects in the high north: geostrategic thaw or freeze? Rome: NATO Defence College Research Division: 151–178.Google Scholar
O’Rourke, R. 2013. Changes in the Arctic: background and issues for Congress. Washington DC: Congressional Research Service, 8 August 2013. URL: https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41153.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Otero, M. 2010. Remarks by Maria Otero, under secretary for democracy and global affairs, U.S. State Department. Ny Alesund, Norway: Embassy of the United States. URL: http://norway.usembassy.gov/oterospeech.html (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Papp, R. 2011. Statement of Robert Papp, commandant, U.S. Coast Guard on ‘Arctic operations’ before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation. Washington DC: Department of Homeland Security, United States Coast Guard 27 July 2011. URL: http://www.uscg.mil/seniorleadership/DOCS/2011–07–27;%20Arctic%20Hearing%20Written%20Testimony.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Rainwater, S. 2012. Race to the north: China's Arctic strategy and its implications. Naval War College Review 6: 62–82.Google Scholar
Reuters. 2013. Norway to join Chinese firm in Iceland oil exploration, 22 November 2013. Oslo: Reuters. URL: http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/22/norway–china–iceland–idUSL5N0J72EU20131122 (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Rosamond, A.B. 2011. Perspectives on security in the Arctic area. Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies (DIIS report 9).Google Scholar
Rosenthal, E. 2012. Race is on as ice melt reveals Arctic treasures. The New York Times 18 September 2012. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/19/science/earth/arctic–resources–exposed–by–warming–set–off–competition.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 (accessed 11 March 2014).Google Scholar
Ross, R.S. 2012. The problem with the pivot: Obama's new Asia policy is unnecessary and counterproductive. Foreign Affairs 91 (6): 70–82.Google Scholar
Ross, R.S. 2013. US grand strategy, the rise of China, and US national security strategy for East Asia. Strategic Studies Quarterly Summer 2013: 20–40.Google Scholar
Ross, R. and Zhu, F. 2008. China's ascent: power,security, and the future of international politics. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Roy, D. 2013. Return of the dragon: rising China and regional security. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Sakhuja, V. 2011. Arming the Arctic. South Asia Defence and Strategic View 18 May 2011.Google Scholar
Sharp, T.L. 2011. The implications of ice melt on Arctic security. Defence Studies 11 (2): 297–322.Google Scholar
Solli, P.E., Rowe, E.W. and Lindgren, W.Y.. 2013. Coming into the cold: Asia's Arctic interests. Polar Geography July 2013: 1–18.Google Scholar
Song, K.M. 2012. Icebreaker Polar Star gets $57 million overhaul. Seattle Times 14 December 2012. URL: http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2019907236_coastguard15m.html (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Spiegel Online. 2012. The race for the Arctic. URL: http://www.spiegel.de/international/topic/the_race_for_the_arctic/ (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Stephens, H.L. 2012. Breaking the ice: China's emerging Arctic strategy. The Diplomat 27 August 2012. URL: http://thediplomat.com/2012/08/breaking–the–ice–chinas–emerging–arctic–strategy/ (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Swaine, M. D. 2011. America's challenge: engaging a rising China in the twenty–first century. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment.Google Scholar
Tamnes, R. and Offerdal, K. (editors). In press. Geopolitics and security in the Arctic: regional developments in a global world. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Tang, G. 2013. Arctic issues and China's stance. China International Studies 38.Google Scholar
Tatlow, D.K. 2012. China and the northern rivalry. The New York Times 25 October 2012. URL: http://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/05/china–and–the–northern–great–game/ (accessed 15 Mars 2014).Google Scholar
Titley, D.W. and John, C.C. St.. 2010. Arctic security considerations and the U.S. Navy's Arctic roadmap for the Arctic. Naval War College Review 63: 35–48.Google Scholar
Trotman, A. 2013. Iceland first European country to sign free trade agreement with China. The Telegraph, 15 April. URL: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/9995525/Iceland–first–European–country–to–sign–free–trade–agreement–with–China.html (accessed 15 March 2014).Google Scholar
Tunsjø, Ø. 2013. Security and profit in China's energy policy: hedging against risk. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
US Coast Guard. 2013. Arctic strategy. Washington DC: US Coast Guard. URL: http://www.uscg.mil/seniorleadership/DOCS/CG_Arctic_Strategy.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US Department of Defense. 2008. National defense strategy. Washington DC: US Department of Defense. URL: http://www.defense.gov/news/2008%20national%20defense%20strategy.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US Department of Defense. 2010. Quadrennial defense review report. Washington DC: US Department of Defense. URL: http://www.defense.gov/qdr/images/QDR_as_of_12Feb10_1000.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US Department of Defense. 2011a. Report to Congress on Arctic operations and the northwest passage. Washington DC: US Department of Defense. URL: http://www.defense.gov/pubs/pdfs/Tab_A_Arctic_Report_Public.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US Department of Defense. 2011b. Unified command plan. Washington DC: US Department of Defense URL: http://defense.gov/home/features/2009/0109_unifiedcommand (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US Department of Defense. 2012a. Sustaining U.S. leadership: priorities for 21st century defense. Washington DC: US Department of Defense URL: http://www.defense.gov/news/Defense_Strategic_Guidance.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US Department of Defense. 2012b. Defense budget priorities and choices. Washington DC: US Department of Defense URL: http://www.defense.gov/news/Defense_Budget_Priorities.pdf (accessed 14 March 2014).Google Scholar
US Department of Defense. 2013a. Arctic strategy. Washington DC: US Department of Defense URL: http://www.defense.gov/pubs/2013_Arctic_Strategy.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US Department of Defense. 2013b. Military power of the People's Republic of China. Annual reports to Congress. Washington, DC: Department of Defense. URL: http://www.defense.gov/pubs/ (accessed 11 March 2014).Google Scholar
US Department of State. 2014. The United States and China complete dialogue on law of the sea and polar issues. Washington DC: US Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson. URL: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/04/224280.htm (accessed 10 April 2014).Google Scholar
US Department of the Interior. 2011. Press release: Salazar: Arctic nations call for marine oil spill response plan, integrated management to protect natural resources. Washington DC: US Department of the Interior. URL: http://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/Salazar–Arctic–Nations–call–for–Marine–Oil–Spill–Response–Plan–Integrated–Management–to–Protect–Natural–Resources.cfm (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US Geological Survey. 2008. 90 billion barrels of oil and 1,670 trillion cubic feet of natural gas assessed in the Arctic. Reston VA: USGS: URL: http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=1980&from=rss_home (accessed 5 February 2014).Google Scholar
US Joint Chiefs of Staff. 2011. The national military strategy of the United States of America: redefining America's military leadership. Washington, DC. US Joint Chiefs of Staff.Google Scholar
US Marine Corps, US Navy and US Coast Guard. 2007. US maritime strategy: a cooperative strategy for 21st century seapower. Washington DC: US Marine Corps, US Navy and US Coast Guard.URL: http://www.navy.mil/maritime/MaritimeStrategy.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US Navy. 2009. U.S. Navy Arctic roadmap. Washington DC: Department of the Navy. URL: http://www.wired.com/images_blogs/dangerroom/2009/11/us-navy-arctic-roadmap-nov-2009.pdf)Google Scholar
US Navy. 2010. Strategic objectives for the U.S. Navy in the Arctic region. Washington DC: Department of the Navy. URL: http://greenfleet.dodlive.mil/files/2010/09/US–Navy–Arctic–Strategic–Objectives–21–May–2010.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US Navy. 2014. Arctic roadmap 2014–2030. URL: http://www.navy.mil/docs/USN_arctic_roadmap.pdf (accessed 7 March 2014).Google Scholar
US (White House). 2009. National security presidential directive–66/homeland security presidential directive–25: Arctic region policy. Washington DC: The White House. URL: http://georgewbush–whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2009/01/print/20090112–3.html (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US (White House). 2010. National security strategy. URL: http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/national_security_strategy.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US (White House). 2012. Fiscal year 2013: budget of the U.S. government. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. URL: http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/budget/fy2013/assets/budget.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US (White House). 2013. National strategy for the Arctic region. Washington DC: The White House URL: http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/nat_arctic_strategy.pdf (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
US (White House). 2014. Implementation plan for the national strategy for the Arctic region. Washington DC: The White House. URL: http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/implementation_plan_for_the_national_strategy_for_the_arctic_region_–_fi. . . .pdf (accessed 11 February 2014).Google Scholar
Van Pay, B. and Moore, B.. 2012. U.S.–Canada Arctic expedition surveys the extended continental shelf. Washington DC: DipNote: U.S. Department of State Official Blog. URL: http://blogs.state.gov/index.php/site/entry/us_canada_arctic_expedition (accessed 20 January 2014).Google Scholar
Waltz, K. 1964. The stability of a bipolar world. Daedalus 93 (3): 881–909.Google Scholar
Wegge, N. 2011. The political order in the Arctic: power structures, regimes and influence. Polar Record 47 (241): 165–176.Google Scholar
Wright, D.C. 2011. The dragon eyes the top of the world. Newport, RI: Naval War College (China Maritime Studies 8).Google Scholar
Wu, J. and Zhang, H.. 2012. Freedom of the seas and the law of the seas: a Chinese perspective. In: Dutton, P., Ross, R. and Tunsjø, Ø. (editors). Twenty–first century sea power: cooperation and conflict at Sea. London: Routledge: 281–297.Google Scholar
Yahuda, M. 2013. China's new assertiveness in the South China Sea. Journal of Contemporary China 22 (81): 446–59.Google Scholar
Young, O.R. 2009. Whither the Arctic? Conflict or cooperation in the circumpolar north. Polar Record 45 (232): 73–82.Google Scholar